Hospitals & Asylums
Medicinal Herbs and
Probiotics HA-31-10-12
By Anthony J.
Sanderss
Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.
Hippocrates.
A.
Medicinal Plants
I.
Herbal Preparation
II.
Adaptogens
III.
Probiotics
IV.
Psychoative Drugs
V.
Toxic Plants
B.
Medical Treatment
VI.
Pulmonary Medicine
VII.
Cardiovascular
Medicine
VIII.
Oral Health
IX.
Gastrointestinal,
Liver and Pancreas Medicine
X.
Reproductive and
Kidney Health
XI.
Skin Care
XII.
Neurological and
Psychiatric Medicine
XIII.
Osteo-Arthritis
Treatment
XIV.
Cancer Treatment
XV.
Immune, Lymphatic
and Endocrine Systems Medicine
C.
Medical History
XVI.
Ancient Medicine
XVII.
Classical Medicine
XVIII. Medeival Medicine
XIX.
Scientific
Revolution
XX.
Modern Medicine
D.
Healthy Diet
XXI. Probiotic and Herbal Tea Supplemented Rice
and Green Leafy Vegetable Diet
Tables
1.
9 Healing Spices
2.
24 Healing Herbs
3.
6 Adaptogen Medicinal Rating
4.
7 Prospective Adaptogens
5.
Medicinal Qualities of 2 Ginseng species and Rhodiola rosea
6.
Helping Medication
and Probiotics Work Together
7.
Health Benefits of
13 Highly Studied Probiotic Strains
8. Higher Plants of Allergic Significance in Continental
United States
9. Herbal Remedies for Cold and Flu Symptoms
10. Herbal Remedies for Cardiovascular Problems
11. Herbal Remedies for Toothache
12. Herbal Remedies for Gastroenteritis
13. Herbal Remedies for the Reproductive and Kidney Health
14. Herbal Skin Care Products
15. Herbal Neurological and Psychiatric Remedies
16. Herbal Remedies for Osteo-Arthritis
17. Herbal Remedies for Cancer
18. Herbal Remedies for the Immune, Lymphatic and
Glandular Systems
19. Vitamins and Minerals, What they do, Food Source
A.
Medicinal Plants
I.
Herbal Preparation
Plants
relating to human health fall into three categories: those which injure, those
which heal and nourish, and those which alter the conscious mind (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 2). This
treatise on medicinal herbs, spices and probiotics is written both to prepare
labels for the medicinal herbs in the Tree of Life Garden and to spare the
October 2012 update of Book 8 Drug Regulation (DR) any anxiety or depression
better treated by St. John’s Wort, Valerian, Rosemary, Lemon Balm and Chamomile
tea - both of which projects will run through November, due to the injurious
quantity of labor. My interest in
medicinal herbs is primarily culinary in nature - to better supplement my vegan
diet in order to improve flavor, nutrition, athletic performance, cavity
prevention, and stop the diarrhea and malabsorption that began after using
antibiotics heavily to recover from four years of heart disease, last
year. Vegans face a low risk of death
from heart disease, diabetes or cancer but must eat frequently and supplement
appropriately as they quickly become deficient in calories, and under the
stress of illness requiring antibiotic treatment, deficient in both Vitamin
B-12, which causes chronic diarrhea and the mineral Phosphorus, which causes
cavities, because in nature they are only found in animal products. Part A catalogues photos of 33 medicinal
spices and herbs easily cultivated or purchased in most of North America, 13
adaptogens, 13 probiotic cultures, psychoactive and toxic plants; Part B
catalogues appropriate herbal remedies for common conditions, Part C recounts
the history of medicine and Part D adds herbal tea and probiotics to a rice and
green leafy vegetable diet for optimum health.
The primary lesson is to consume billions of probiotic organisms every
day of taking antibiotics and for two weeks thereafter and also when eating poorly
of too many carbohydrates or spoiled foods or drinking bad water. Furthermore, four cups a day of of herbal
tea, typically a concoction of every herb available with the necessary
medicinal qualities, either as a substitute or complement to pharmaceutical
medicine, seems to be the best way to ensure the drinking water is boiled and
nourishing.
One out of every three adult Americans uses
complementary/alternative medical care.
Sales of botanicals have increased more than 300 percent since the 1990s
and currently are an $8 billion industry (Gladstar ’12: 8). Herbs are so potent and flavorful that they
do not need much space, many are wayside weeds and invasive plants, which is
good for beginning gardeners (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 2).
For centuries Native Americans have perpetuated an empirical science of
herbology in relation to health which has been essentially ignored during these
days of great advances in biomedicine.
Apprentices of Navajo medicine men, for example, learn to use
medicinally nearly 200 plants. There
exist herbal cures for blood poisoning, rattlesnake bites, etc. Many Navajo
consider that white doctors take care of certain physical needs such as
infections and surgery, while their medicine men minister to the major problems
of the mind and spirit. The widespread and long-standing practice of using
plants in medicine in Eurasia, especially around the Mediterranean, the
subcontinent, and China, has been transcribed to us through the pictographs of
the Egyptians, the clay tablet ideographs of the Babylonians, and the Vedic
Sanskrit. Following the contributions to
medicine of Hippocrates (460-377 BC), Dioscorides (first century AD), and Galen
(AD 131-200), together with the early Arabian physicians, there was essentially
a period of 1000 years during which little if any progress was achieved either
in the medicinal sciences or in botany. Before the
edict of Frederick II of 1240 pharmacy and medicine were not separate
occupations. The edict contained three
regulations: (1) separation of the pharmaceutical profession from the medical
profession; (2) official supervision of pharmaceutical practice; and (3)
obligation by oath to prepare drugs reliably, according to skilled are, and in
a uniform, suitable quality. Two other
principles of the edict greatly affected the future practice of pharmacy in
many European countries, (1) the limitation of the number of pharmacies within
a designated geographic and political entity and (2) the fixing of the prices
of drugs by the government. The first regulation defining the functions of the
physician and the apothecary was issued by Henry VIII in 1511. After the formation of the College of
Physicians, later known as the Royal College of Physicians, in 1540, the
apothecaries were placed under the more direct regulation of the College. This did not last long, and by 1543, an act
was passed giving the right of “every person being the King’s subject having
knowledge and experience of the nature of herbs, roots and waters to use and
minister, according to their cunning, experience and knowledge” (Smith ’75: 2,
4, 2, 3).
Throughout North
Temperate American and Eurasia, our ancestors used willows and poplars, which
contain an aspirin like compound, to relieve fever and pain. Foxglove
has been used for several centuries to treat out greatest killer, heart
disease. Without foxglove, or other
plants producing cardiotonoic compounds, congestive heart failure and death
would occur inevitably, and perhaps quickly.
More than 3 million Americans take an extract of foxglove daily. Before
1950 the inflexible fate of those with high blood pressure was a stroke, heart
failure, or kidney failure, but today, thanks to the use of Ravolfia extracts, a large percentage of
cases of hypertension can be controlled. The treatment of glaucoma with
alkaloids from the calabar bean of Nigeria, or leaves of Brazilian species of Piloscarpus, can prevent blindness. Of
the plants found to have remedial properties, none are more welcome that those
that help in our fight against cancer.
Many thousands of lives have been saved or extended by the
antineoplastic agents of microorganisms, or by the alkaloids vincristine and
vinblastine of the Madagascaran annual periwinkle. The dramatic results of using these compounds
in combination chemotherapy for treating Hodgkin’s disease (80% remission),
acute lymphocytic leukemia (99% remission), Wilm’s tumor (80% cured), Burkitt’s
lymphoma (50% cured), and gestational choriocarcinoma (70% cured). Two derivatives of Glycyrrhiza glabra root, the common licorice from which candy is
made, have been used to treat peptic ulcers.
Licorice has a long history in European domestic medicine for the
treating of indigestion and for alleviating, or relieving, inflamed stomachs.
Patients often use expectorants, such as ipecac syrup from Cephaelis, creosote from American beech, or mucolutic agents from
leaves of the Malabar nut tree. The
vegetable kingdom abounds in antitussive agents, as well as substances for
soothing sore throats and treating colds.
Hundreds of aphrodisiac substances are allegedly used by men of certain
indigenous populations. Some are
available commercially, such as the alkaloid yohimbine, from the bark of the
African Corynanthe. Many herbs have
cosmetic uses in perfumes, creams, salves, soaps, oils and shampoos. Plants having psychoactive properties have
always been popular. Stimulants like
cocaine, chat, the beverages including coffee, tea, chocolate, and noncaffeine
teas, and nicotine all give a sense of well-being and exhilaration, of
self-confidence and even power as well as alleviating fatigue and
insomnia. Some plants are capable of
inducing hallucinations, ranging from cacti, spices and morning glories, to
mushrooms. There are also depressants,
including the widely enjoyed derivative of fungi, alcohol (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 7).
The different parts of plants should be harvested at different
times. Buds and flowers are best
harvested just as they are opening. Don’t
wait for them to open fully, by that point, they will have lost much of their
medicinal potency. Leaves usually are
best harvested before a plant is in full bloom.
For some plants, like many of the mints the leaves are often more potent
when the plants are in flower. Do they
seem alive, vital and healthy? Then harvest.
Roots are best dug in the fall or spring when the energy of the plant is
still stored in the root or bulb. Roots
should also be planted in the fall. As
spring and summer unfold, the plant’s energy moves upward to provide
nourishment for the leaves, flowers and seed or fruit, leaving the root less
potent. Once you’ve harvested your medicinal herbs, you may want to dry some to
preserve them for future use. The best
drying conditions for herbs are: (1) a steady warm temperature of around 90° to
110° F. (2) minimal humidity: the less, the better (3) good airflow, and (4)
protection from direct sunlight. When you are making salves and oils it is
better to use dried herbs because the water content in fresh plants can spoil
the oil. Generally, small dosages given frequently are more effective than
large dosages taken over longer periods of time. As a guideline these dosages are ¼ cup of
herbal tea every half hour for a total of up to 4 cups a day; ½ to 1 teaspoon
of herbal syrup every 2 hours, for a total of up to 10 teaspoons daily; ¼ to ½
teaspoon of herbal tincture every hour, for a total of up to 6 teaspoons
daily. 1 or two herbal capsules or pills
every 2 hours, for a total of up to 8 capsules daily. For every year you’ve had
a chronic problem, you’ll need a month of treatment to heal it. For example, if you’ve had allergies for 6
years, plan on following an herbal program for 6 months. There is an old adage,
sometimes attributed to Hippocrates “Let food by your medicine and medicine be
your food” (Gladstar ’12: 18, 19, 46, 52).
To make infusions and decoctions leaves and flowers are prepared
differently from roots and bark. Leaves
and flowers are generally steeped (infused) in hot water so as not to overcook
and destroy the enzymes, vitamins and precious essential oils. Roots and bark are generally simmered (in a
decoction) to draw forth the more tenacious plant constituents. For medicinal purposes, teas need to be
fairly strong, and so you’ll use a relatively large amount of herbs in making
them. For an infusion put 4 to 6
tablespoons of dried herb (or 6 to 8 tablespoons of fresh herb) into a glass
quarter jar; pour boiling water over the herbs, filling the jar; let steep for
30 to 45 minutes; strain and drink. For a decoction place 4 to 6 tablespoons of
dried herb (or 6 to 8 tablespoons of fresh herb) in a small saucepan; add 1
quart of cold water; with the heat on low, bring the mixture to a slow simmer,
cover and let simmer for 25 to 45 minutes; for a stronger decoction, simmer the
herbs for 20 to 30 minutes, then pour the mixture into a quart jar and seet it
aside to infuse overnight; strain and drink. Infusions can also be made with
cold water in sunlight or moonlight. Syrups begin with a concentrated decoction
simmered to half its volume. Strain the
herbs. Measure the volume of liquid and
pour it back in the pot. For each pint
of liquid add 1 cup of honey or other sweetener, such as maple syrup, vegetable
glycerin, or brown sugar. Most recipes
call for 2 cups but this is too sweet.
Warm the mixture over low heat, stirring well. Remove from heat. Pour the syrup into bottles. Store in the
refrigerator, where it will last for several weeks. Oil must be kept at the right temperature,
between 95° and 110° F. Chop the herbs
and put them in the top part of a double boiler. Cover the herbs with an inch or two of
high-quality cooking oil (i.e. olive oil).
Simmer gently for 30 to 60 minutes.
Strain out the herbs. Solar
infused oils steep for 2 weeks after which time the herbs are strained out
(Gladstar ’12: 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36).
Salves are made by combining medicinal oil and beeswax. For each cup of finished herbal oil add ¼ cup
of beeswax. Heat the oil and beeswax
together over very low heat, stirring occasionally, until the beeswax is
melted. Do a consistency test to ensure
the salve is the desired consistency.
Place 1 tablespoon of the mixture on a plate, then let sit in the
freezer for a minute or two. Then check
the firmness of the salve. For a harder
salve, add more beeswax to the blend.
For a softer salve, add more oil.
Once the mixture is the consistency you want, remove from heat and pour
immediately into small glass jars or tins.
Store the slave in a cook, dark place, where it will keep for at least
several months. Tinctures are
concentrated liquid extracts or herbs.
Most tinctures are made with 80 to 100 proof alcohol as a solvent. Chop your herbs fine and place in a clean,
dry glass jar. Pour enough alcohol over
the herbs to completely cover them by 2 to 3 inches, and then seal the jar with
a tight-fitting lid. It’s not unusual
for the herbs to float to the top. If this
happens, let them settle for a day or two, and then check to see if you need to
add more alcohol to reach that 2 to 3 inch margin. Place the jar in a warm, sunny spot and the
herbs soak for 4 to 6 weeks, shaking daily.
Strain the herbs for the liquid and pour into a clean glass jar. An alcohol based tincture will keep for many
years whereas a glycerin tincture will keep for 2 to 3 years and a vinegar
based one at least 1 year. To make herbal pills place powdered herbs in a bowl
and mix with enough water and honey (or maple syrup) to make a sticky paste. Thicken the mixture with enough carob or
unsweetened cocoa powder to form a thick, smooth paste. Knead until the dough is as smooth as bread
dough. Break of small bits of dough and
roll them into small balls, the size of pills.
Dry the pills in a dehydrator, or place them on a cookie sheet and dry
them in the oven at a very low temperature (around 150 degrees F, or with just
the oven light on). Once dried, these
pills will keep indefinitely. Store in glass jars in a cool, dark location (Gladstar
’12: 38, 40, 41, 43).
9 Healing Spices
|
Spice |
Growing |
Medicinal
Use |
Key
constituents |
|
Basil,
>159 varieties, e.g. sweet basil (Ocimum
basilicum) |
Sow
directly in fertile soil when temperatures have warmed to >50°F. Sun
loving. Thin plants 6 to 8”, Pinch off
flower for long growth season. Harvest
leaves and flowering tops as they mature throughout season. 6 to 8 plants is sufficient for the
winter.
|
Sweet
basil is known for its flavor, scent, and is widely used in stews, pestos and
as a garnish for tomatoes. It eases
gas and stomach cramps and relieves nausea and vomiting, nervous
irritability, fatigue, depression, anxiety and insomnia. Antibacterial and juice or poultice
relieves itch and pain of insect bites and stings. Safe |
essential
oil, caffeic acid, monoterpenes, tannins, beta-carotene, vitamin C |
|
Cayenne
(Capsicum annuum and related
species) |
Easy to
grow. Annual, long growing season,
warm weather, fertile soil and full sun, but tolerant. Only the fruit is edible and
medicinal. As with Solanaceae
(nightshade), to which cayenne belongs, eaves stems and flowers can be toxic. |
Warming,
improves circulation, is used in heart tonic, lowers cholesterol, analgesic,
decongestant. Used topically to
relieve pain from arthritis, bursitis, and muscle and joint aches. Active ingredient in several OTC creams. Used in cold remedies. Warning – this herb
is hot. Don’t touch eyes. Strong stimulant that can cause stomach
convulsions in large amounts. Small
amounts go a long way. |
Capsaicin
(pain reliever), carotenoids, vitamins A & C, flavonoids, steroidal saponins,
volatile oils. |
|
Cinnamon
(Cinnamomum verum) native to Sri
Lanka and India. Cinnamomum cassia)
native to China warmer, more fragrant and stronger tasting. |
Cinnamon
is the bark of a fast-growing tree, member of the laurel family. The inner bark is harvested from young
shoots that sprout from the stumps of the trees, which are cut back every
couple of years. Ground into powder or
sold as whole sticks. Prefers warm,
moist conditions and sandy soil. Large
tree or shrub requires space. |
Sweet,
warming flavor, cinnamon is used to improve flavor. Warming and stimulating
properties are used to boost vitality, improve circulation, and clear
congestion. Respected digestive aid,
particularly in cases of overeating, bloating and sluggish digestion. One of the best herbs around for
stabilizing blood sugar levels.
Powerful antiseptic, with antiviral and antifungal properties. Often indicated in cases of viral
infections, fungal infections, and colds and flus. Mild emmenagogue, useful in sluggish and
painful menstruation. |
Essential
oils, tannins, iron, magnesium, mucilage, zinc, coumarins. |
|
Garlic (Allium sativum) |
Garlic
is easy to grow. It thrives in
well-drained, fertile soil with a good pH (4.5 to 8.5) and does best in full
sun. Plant individual cloves with
their pointed ends up about 6 inches apart and 2 inches deep. Plant int hej fall for a late-sumer harvest
or early spring for a late-fall harvest.
Harvest the bulbs after the blooms die vback and the leaves begin to
fall over. To increase the size of the
bulbs, cut back the flowering stalks, known as scape. (The scapes themselves are edible and deli
ious). Save some of your biggest and
best cloves for replanting. |
Garlic
is not only tasty, it is the herb of choice for treating colds, flus, sore
throats and poor or sluggish digestion.
It stimulates the production of white blood cells, boosting immune
function and is a potent internal and external antiseptic, antibacterial, and
antimicrobial agent effective for treating many types of infection, including
several forms of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. It helps to maintain healthy blood
cholesterol and helps prevent blood platelet aggregation, making it the herb
of choice for many circulatory issues and lowers blood sugar levels in Type 2
diabetes. Garlic can irritate and burn
sensitive skin, cause heartburn, stomach distress, provoke anger and should
be avoided by nursing mothers as it can cause colick. |
Alliin
(converts to allicin when the bulbs are crushed), essential oils, sulfur
compounds, germanium, selenium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamin A,
B & C |
|
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) native in Asia,
North American “wild ginger” (Asarum
canadense) not a substitute |
Ginger
thrives in hot, humid environments in rich, moist soil – sunroom. Plant pieces of rhizome with a growing nub
or two attached just under the soil.
Water frequently, keep the soil moist, give it plenty of sunshine and
it will thrive. Rhizomes are ready to
harvest in 8 to 10 months.
|
Ginger
is tasty and effective remedy for cramps, nausea, morning sickness, and
motion sickness. It contains a
proteolytic enzyme that has been shown to reduce inflammation and help repair
damaged joints and cartilage tissue.
It improves circulation in the pelvis and is often the main ingredient
in reproductive tonics for men and women and in formulas for menstrual cramps
and PMS. Ginger lowers blood level
triglycerides linked to diabetes and heart disease. Ginger rivals antinausea drugs for
chemotherapy, without side effects.
Antiseptic properties useful for treating gastroenteritis. It is a popular warming, decongesting herb
for cold-type imbalances such as poor circulation, colds and flues,
respiratory congestion and sore throat.
Safe. |
Essential
oils, oleoresin, gingerol (an acrid constituent that gives ginger its hot
taste and stimulating action). |
|
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis) native to
Mediterranean |
Rosmarinus,
means “dew of the sea”, is cultivated throughout the world and its natural
habitat is warm, sunny hillsides bordering the sea. Rosemary can’t survive freezing
temperatures and should be brought in when temperatures dip below 40° F. A rosemary plant is best cultivated from a
root cutting or stem layering. It loves
fertile soil and full sunlight, though will tolerate some shade. For best effect, mist the leaves weekly
with a diluted seaweed spray. |
Rosemary
is brain tonic improving concentration and memory. It enhances the cellular uptake of oxygen
and is a mild and uplifting stimulant that eases headaches and migraines and
mild to moderate depression. It is also
a circulatory stimulant useful for the treatment of poor circulation and low
blood pressure. Rosmaricine is a mild
analgesic and antioxidant useful for treating inflammation, such as arthritis
and joint damage. Rosemary is a useful
digestive aid fresh or dried, facilitating the digestion of fats and
starches. Few reports of toxicity. |
Flavonoids,
rosmarinic acid, essential oil, tannings resin, bitters, camphors,
beta-carotene, vitamin C, calcium, iron, magnesium, triterpenes. |
|
Sage (Salvia officinalis), 750 salvias.
around the world |
Sage
loves full sunshine warm to hot conditions, and well-drained soil. It doesn’t do well in wet or soggy soil and
soon tires of cool, wet weather. It’s
difficult to start from seed, so get your plants from a nursery or propagate
them from root cuttings. Older plants
get leggy and woody, so cut back old growth in the early spring, before new
growth starts. Where rosemary thrives in the garden the woman rules the
house, but where sage thrives, the man rules. |
Sage is
a superb aid in the digestion of rich, fatty meat. It also lowers cholesterol levels and is a
bitter tonic for the liver. It
rebuilds vitality and strength during long-term illness. Sage tea is a warming, bracing drink, nice
mixed with mint or rosemary and lemon balm.
Sage is a mild hormonal stimulant and can promote regular
menstruation, offering relief from hot flashes and night sweats for
menopausal women, and premature ejaculation or “night emissions” for
men. Sage works in part, by “drying”
and regulating fluids in the body. It
reduces sweating and is often used in deodorants. 1 cup of tea “dries” mother’s milk, should
not be used by nursing mother. It
mitigates excessive salivation in Parkinson’s disease. Sage is useful for cold and flus. Its astringent, antiseptic and relaxing
action on the mucous membranes, sage is the classic remedy for inflammation
of the mouth, throat, tonsils and laryngitis.
It can be used as a mouthwash or swab to treat infected or sore gums
and canker sores. |
Camphor;,
thujone (active ingredient in ansinthe, can be toxic), cineole, flavonoids,
phenolic acids (including rosemarinic acid, tannins, bitters. |
|
Thyme.
There are many varieties, for medicinal purposes, choose common garden thyme
(Thymus vulgaris and/or lemon thyme
(T. citriodorus). |
This
small fragrant herb is beloved by gardeners and beekeepers. Thyme is hardy perennial that thrives in
most climates, though it prefers well-drained, alkaline soil and a sunny location. Seeds can be sown directly in the soil in
the spring or indoors in flats for an earlier start. As the plant matures, it becomes woody and
benefits from heavy trimming in the early spring, before new growth
commences. |
Thyme is
a powerful disinfectant and can be used both externally (as a wash) and
internally to help fight off infection.
It’s often used to ward off colds and as a rinse to treat sore throat
and oral infections. It also makes a
fine tea for treating coughs and chest complaints. It is used in many antifungal
remedies. It is rich in anti-oxidants
and has a markedly tonic effect, supporting normal body function. It seems to have a positive effect on the
glandular system as a whole and especially the thymus gland. Safe. |
Essential
oil with variable constituents (thymol, cineole, borneol), flavonoids,
tannins. |
|
Turmeric
(Curcuma longa) |
Turmeric
thrives in warm, moist, tropical conditions.
It can grow 3 to 5 feet tall, in a large pot. Plant the rhizome shallowly in rich soil,
and keep moist, warm and in full sunshine.
Turmeric has gorgeous bright red flowers. The rhizome is ground into powder. |
Turmeric
is among the most antioxidant-rich, anti-inflammatory and immune-enhancing
herbs. Used in both Ayurvedic and
traditional Chinese medicine as a remedy for jaundice and other liver and
gallbladder disorders. As a pungent,
drug warming herb, it is also used to treat chest colds and coughs. Anti-inflammatory properties work by
sensitizing the body’s cortisol receptor sites. Useful treatment for arthritis,
osteoarthritis, and most other inflammatory conditions. It is stronger than hydrocortisone, without
side-effects. Curcumin, is an
effective topical antibacterial agent and has stronger antioxidant properties
than vitamin E. Curcumin is a powerful
agent against several types of cancers of the esophagus, breast, colon,
prostate and skin and inhibits the growth of lymphoma cells. If the drying and warming is too much
combine with a moisture enhancing herb, such as marsh mallow root, or
increase water intake. |
Essential
oils (containing zingiberene and turmerone), curcumin, bitters, resins. |
Source: Gladstar ’12:
pgs. 50-98
Arugula: Considered a sexual stimulant and reproductive tonic, arugula
I nutrient dene, containing high level of iron, calcium, magnesium, and trace
minerals. The green has a sophisticated
hot, almost bitter flavor.
Black Pepper: Black pepper is warming, energizing and
stimulating. It is indicated for
“cold-type” problems such as flus, coughs, colds, poor circulation, and poor
digestion.
Cardamom: with a divinely sensual flavor, cardamom belongs with ginger
and turmeric. It stimulates the mind and
arouses the senses. In Ayurvedic
medicine, it is considered on the safest and best digestive aids.
Clove is used to relieve the pain of toothache and oral
infection. Its essential oils contain
high levels of acetyleugenol, a powerful antiseptic and antispasmodic. Clove also has antifungal properties and is
often used in antifungal remedies.
Dill is an effective and well known remedy for digestive complaints,
gas and hiccups, with powerful antispasmodic properties. Sooths colicking babies.
Horseradish is good for sinus congestion and head colds. The root is rich in minerals, including
ilica, as well as vitamins, including vitamin C. Its warming antiseptic properties make it the
herb of choice for treating asthma, catarrh, lung infections, and other
congestive conditions.
Marjoram and Oregano are both used to relieve nervousness,
irritability, and insomnia due to tension and anxiety. They are both powerful antiseptic and
disinfectant herbs that effectively fight bacterial and viral infections.
Mint is rich in essential oils, vitamin C, beta-carotene, and
chlorophyll. They are generally
excellent antispasmodics and are useful for preventing cramps and muscle
spasms.
Parsley is rich in iron, beta-carotene, chlorophyll and many other
vitamins and minerals, parsley I used to treat iron deficiency, anemia and
fatigue. A primary herb for bladder and
kidney problem, it is safe and effective diuretic. It can help to dry up mother’s milk during
the weaning process and is effective as a poultice for swollen, enlarged
breasts and/or mastitis. A nursing
mother should not consume parsley (Gladstar ’12: 99).
24 Healing Herbs
|
Spice |
Growing |
Medicinal
Use |
Key
constituents |
|
Aloe
Vera (Aloe barbadensis) Native of
warm, dry regions. |
Will
grow for many seasons with little care indoors in a sunlit window. Aloe prefers full sun, sandy and
well-drained soil, and moderate watering.
Very easy to grow. Should yield
healing leaves. For internal use scoop
the aloe gel directly from fresh aloe leaves, avoid the skin and outermost
layer of the leaves, to avoid the laxative properties. |
Healing
agent for burns and blisters, that prevents scarring. Applied topically, the thick gel that oozes
from the cut leaves is soothing and pain relieving, and it contains rich
concentrations of anthraquinones, which promote rapid healing and tissue repair. Popularized for skin care by
Cleopatra. Taken internally, aloe vera
is a widely used and safe laxative, due to the aloin, bitter constituents,
found in the outer sheath of the leaf blades, which is used in commercial
laxatives. Effective to soothe digestive
irritation and inflammation, such as stomach ulcers and colitis. Well known for arthritic pain and
bursitis. Not for pregnant or nursing
mothers due to laxative properties.
Not recommended as a topical treatment for staph or impetigo, creating
a perfect culture for them to grow.
|
Fiber, B
vitamins, vitamin E, selenium. Silicon, enzymes, aloin, anthraquinones,
polysaccharides, tannins. |
|
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
Burdock
grows wild and is free for the picking, in a wide range of conditions. Round, prickly seedpods attach to passing
animals, effectively dispersing seeds.
If you don’t want a garden or pets full of burdock clip the seeds in
the fall before they ripen. The parts
used are primarily the root, although the seeds and leaves are used
externally as poultices and salves. |
Most
effective detoxifying and cleansing herb in Western and traditional Chinese
medicine. Burdock is one of the best
herbs for skin problems and can be used internally and externally to eczema,
psoriasis, and other skin-related imbalances, such as teen acne. Burdock is effective decocted, and used to
wash or bathe, for dry, itchy, irritated skin. Burdock is a specific remedy for the liver,
like dandelion. The root is part of a very well-known Native American
anticancer formula called Essiac.
Burdock root has a beneficial effect on the lymphatic system, when
there is lymph stagnation or congestion, indicated by swollen lymph
nodes. 3 to 4 cups of burdock tea a
day and after a day or two the swollen lymph nodes should be gone. |
Calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, iron and chromium, inulin, sesphiterpenes, bitter
glycosides, flavonoids, volatile oils. |
|
Calendula
(Calendula officinalis) |
Calendula
starts blooming early and ends very late in the year. Sow seeds in in fall or early spring. It likes full sunshine, fertile soil and
occasional water. Calendula flowers were at one time a frequent ingredient in
winter stews and soups, as the result of their extended blooming season. The blossoms are ready to pick when they
are sticky with resin (which has antifungal properties)
|
Calendula
is a powerful vulnerary, healing wounds by promoting cell repair and
growth. Also a noted antiseptic and
anti-inflammatory. Applied topically
or used internally, it can help keep infections at bay, and is a common
ingredient in creams, salves and ointments for treating bruises, burns,
sores, skin ulcers, skin infections and rashes. Calendula flower is soothing and gentle for
babies and is a popular herb for treating cradle cap, diaper rash, and other
skin irritations. Calendula tea is
useful internally and externally (as a wash or poultice) to moderate fever
temperature. Mild astringent and
antiseptic properties are helpful for treating gastrointestinal problems such
as ulcers (mixed with marsh mallow root) and cramps (mixed with valerian or
cramp bark), indigestion (mixed with peppermint) and diarrhea (alone or mixed
with blackberry root). Calendula is
one of the best herbs for nourishing and cleansing the lymphatic system,
alone or mixed with other lymph cleansers such as burdock, red clover,
cleavers, and chickweed. Calendula
stimulates the lymphatic drainage and moves congestion out of the body. |
Carotenoids,
flavonoids, mucilage, saponins, bitters, volatile oil, resins. |
|
Chamomile
(Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria
recutita and related species) |
Easily
grown by sowing seeds in early spring, harvest, plant again in fall for late
harvest. Prefers dry, light,
well-drained soil and full sun. Will
get leggy and bolt in really hot weather.
Richer soil produces lusher foliage.
Rake flowers into basket.
Releases a delicious pineapple – or applelike fragrance on
contract. Has curative powers for
plants that grow nearby and is a popular companion plant. The flowers, primarily, but also leaves,
make a wonderful calming tea.
|
Chamomile
is as gentle as it is potent and effective.
It is approved in the pharmacopoeias of 26 countries to treat
conditions ranging from colic and indigestion to muscle spasms, tension,
inflammation, and infection. Chamomile
flowers have rich amounts of azulene, a volatile oil with a range of active
principles that serve as anti-inflammatory and antifever agents, useful in
the treatment of arthritis, and other inflammatory conditions of the nervous
and digestive systems. Useful for
going into a deep, restful sleep.
Chamomile is a popular remedy for calming colic and childhood
digestive issues. Tea can be added to
bathwater for a soothing bath. It
makes excellent massage oil for relieving stress, anxiety and muscle
soreness. Some people are allergic to
chamomile. It you get itchy eyes or
ears, a runny nose, a scratchy throat or other signs of allergy, discontinue
use. |
Azylune
and other volatile oils, flavonoids, tannins, bitter glycosides, salicylates,
coumarins, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus. |
|
Chickweed
(Stellaria media) |
Frequent
weed growing in moist cultivated soil preferring a sunny but cool location,
but tolerant of partial shade. Direct
sow the seeds in full sun or partial shade, water well, and watch for the
tiny seedlings to sprout. Shallow
rooted green mulch good in salads and medicine, can be invasive. Eat regularly, juice and use abundantly in
herbal remedies.
|
Mild-tasting
plant that disguises strength in sweetness.
Highly esteemed for emollient, demulcent healing properties. A major herb for addressing skin
irritation, eye inflammation and kidney and liver disorders. Excellent poultice for treating hot, irritated
rashes and skin problems. In a salve,
chickweed has soothing, healing effects on the skin and is among the most
effective remedies for relieving itchiness.
It’s often used to treat rashes, eczema, and nettle stings, and it’s
gentle enough to use on diaper rash and other skin irritations on infants and
children. Chickweed doesn’t dry or
store well, to preserve fresh leaves it is best to tincture them, freeze, or
convert them into a salve. Perfectly
safe, with no known toxicity. |
Vitamin
C, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, iron, zinc coumarins, saponins. |
|
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) tooth of the
lion |
Let your
lawn go unmowed and within a few weeks you’ll have a fresh crop of dandelion
greens. Dandelion prefers rich,
somewhat moist soil and full sun.
Direct-sow seeds in the fall for early spring greens. Greens can be harvested throughout the
season, whether or not the plant is in flower. The younger greens are fresher, less bitter
and more tender. The roots can be
harvested in late fall. Don’t wait too
long, as older roots get bitter and woody.
Bees and other pollinators love dandelion. |
The
entire plant is useful as both medicine and food. The root is a classic liver tonic or “blood
purifier”, with a stimulating and decongesting effect on the liver. Encourages optimal digestion, with a rich
supply of bitter compounds that, having stimulated receptor sites on the
tongue, signal the digestive tract.
The root also stimulates the production of bile, which in turn helps
break down cholesterol and fat. Strong
effect is not appropriate for all cases of liver disease. Some people are
allergic to the milky latex of dandelion flowers and stems. If a rash should develop discontinue
treatment. |
Vitamins
A, B, C and D, iron, potassium, calcium, inulin, sesquiterpenes, carotenoids. |
|
Echinacea
(Echinacea angustifolia)
Coneflower, (E. purpurea) purple
coneflower; Native to Appalachia, the prairies, and Midwest. |
Lovely,
easy to grow and hardy. Loves full sun
and warm weather, though in very hot climates it may require partial
shade. Soil can be poor and Echinacea
is drought and flood tolerant. The
roots, leaf, flower and seed are used.
|
Top
immune enhancing herb in 20th century Western medicine which was
rescued from obscurity in no small part by European research on
Echinacea. It works, in part, by
increasing macrophage and T-cell activity.
It is also rich in polysaccharides, which help protect cells against
invasion by viruses and bacteria. It
has antifungal and antibacterial properties.
Most effective if taken at the early signs of illness. Echinacea is particularly effective against
bronchial and respiratory infections, sore throat, and oral infections. As a tea or tincture, Echinacea can be
taken at the first sign of a cold or flu to boost immune system
function. Take in frequent small
doses. Incredibly effective it has few
if any side effects or residual buildup in the body. Some people have allergic reactions to
Echinacea. If you get itchy eyes or
ears, a runny nose, a scratchy throat, or other sings of allergy, discontinue
use. |
Polysaccharides,
caffeic acid, echinacoside, sesquiterpenes, tannins, linoleic acid,
beta-carotene, vitamin C. |
|
Elder (Sambucus nigra) |
Traditionally
planted at the edge of the herb garden as the “protector” of the garden. A large perennial shrub that can reach
upwards of 30 feet, elder grows easily and quickly given the right
conditions. It prefers moist, rich
soil and partial shade to full sun. In
the wild it often grows along stream banks and at the edges of farm fields,
where there’s water runoff and rich soil.
It can be grown from seed but a cutting is an easier route for
propagation. Elder flowers and berries
are some of the best medicine and food found growing in gardens and wild
throughout most of temperate North America.
Share with deer, moose, other grazing animals and more than 35 native
birds in the summer. |
Elderberry
and elder flower are among Europe’s most esteemed remedies for cold and flus,
where they line pharmacy shelves.
Elder’s beautiful lacy flowers are diaphoretic, meaning they induce
sweating, thereby helping to lower fevers.
Elder’s berries have immune-enhancing properties and are often
combined with Echinacea in immune-stimulating remedies for colds. The berries also have powerful antiviral
properties and are helpful in treating viral infections including flus,
herpes and shingles. Also used for
treating upper respiratory infections.
Elderberries make some of the best syrup and wine you’ll ever taste. They also make great jams, jellies and
pies. The flowers are also edible and
delicious. Making nice fritters,
dipping the large, flat flower tops in a light batter, frying and serving
with elderberry jam. Do not eat the
raw uncooked berries in any great quantity as they can cause digestive upset
and diarrhea in some people. |
Vitamins
A, C, bioflavonoids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, beta-carotene, iron,
potassium, phytosterols. |
|
Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis), native to
North America |
Until
recently little supply existed outside of wild populations but goldenseal is
now cultivated in fairly large quantities.
Goldenseal is a slow growing perennial. It grows naturally only in the shady
hardwood forests of the eastern United States and Canada. Goldenseal loves humus-rich soil, a pH of 6
to 7 and at least 70 percent shade.
Plant under large old maple, birch or beech, it will not do well under
evergreens or oaks, which will throw off the pH. Goldenseal is difficult to grow from seed,
it can be done, but it requires stratification for up to 3 months. It is very easy to start from
rhizomes. Divide a rhizome into
smaller pieces, make sure each piece has an “eye” or growing node. Plant in the fall 6 to 8 inches apart and
about ½ inch deep. The root will be
ready to harvest after 3 years of growth. |
One of
North America’s greatest contributions to world medicine. Infection-fighting alkaloids and bitters,
goldenseal is powerful medicine.
Useful to treat a wide range of ailments from skin infections to
bronchial congestion and digestive complaints. Goldenseal is considered a natural
antiobiotic and is often paired with Echinacea to help fight off infections,
colds and flus. It is particularly
effective in treating infections of the mucous membranes, found in the
respiratory, digestive, skin and reproductive systems. It is a common ingredient in disinfectant
washes for eye infections such as conjunctivitis, douches for vaginal
infections, mouth washes for sore mouths and gums, and topical treatments for
eczema and psoriasis. The root is
often powdered for use in poultices for skin infections, abscesses and
wounds. Because of its rich bitter
compounds, goldenseal is also helpful in treating, liver, gallbladder and
digestive problems. The root makes a
very bitter tea, people generally prefer it in tincture or capsule form. |
Hydrastine,
berberine, resins, volatile oil, flavonoids, chlorogenic acid. |
|
Hawthorne
(Crataegus laevigata) |
Hawthorne
trees are hardy and can live 200 years.
Some species are short and scraggly, some grow as thick hedgerows in
the Irish, English and Italian countryside.
Does well in full-sun or partial shade at the edge of a forest or
wooded area. Prefers rich, alkaline
soil. Several varieties can be found
at nurseries but hawthorn self-sows readily, and it’s easy to dig up the
young saplings usually found in abundance beneath the mother tree to
transplant to a new location.
|
The
berries are tasty and often enjoyed in syrups, jams and jellies. They also make good medicine, as do the
flower and leaf. Hawthorn is
considered the herb supreme for the heart.
The berries, leaves and flowers are rich in bioflavonoids,
antioxidants, and procanidins, which feed and tone the heart. Hawthorn works in part by dilating the
arteries and veins, enabling blood to flow more freely and releasing
cardiovascular constrictions and blockages.
It strengthens the heart muscle while helping to normalize and
regulate blood pressure. It also helps
maintain healthy cholesterol levels.
Hawthorn is outstanding both to prevent heart problems and to treat
high or low blood pressure, heart disease, edema, angina and heart
arrhythmia. Hawthorn doesn’t store in the body and isn’t accumulative in
action, it’s important to take on a regular basis if using as a heart
tonic. Hawthorn also helps to
stabilize collagen and support the health and repair of ligaments, tendons
and muscles. Hawthorn strengthens
capillaries, useful for bruises.
Combine with lemon balm, the milky tops of oats and St. John’s wort
for a wonderful tea that helps alleviate grief. Powder dried hawthorne berries with
cinnamon, ginger and cardamom powder and sprinkle on boiled or steamed
vegetables to boost flavor and treat heartache. |
Flavonoids,
vitamin, C, choline, acetylcholine, quercitin, triterpenoids, cratetegin,
rutin, procyanidin. |
|
Lavender
(Lavandula officinalis, L. angusfolia)
most medicinal species. Native to southern France and the Mediterranean. |
A
beautiful, fragrant and hardy plant with lovely lavender spikes and familiar
aroma loved by bees and butterflies.
Easy to grow in Zones 5 through 8.
Needs a sunny, warm location and well-drained soil. Difficult to germinate from seed, less than
50% germination rate. Begin with three
or four plants from a local nursery.
Once plants are well established, take root divisions and cuttings to
enlarge your lavender bed. Lavenders
can grow large, depending on the species.
Space plants at least 12 to 24 inches apart. The soil must be well drained and slightly
sandy. A pH between 6.4 and 8 is
ideal. Though lavender likes a good
soaking occasionally, don’t overwater it.
If temperatures drop below 20°F mulch lavender plants to keep them
alive through the winter. Harvest
lavender flowers when the buds are just starting to open. If you harvest the flowers when the buds
are fully open, the medicinal properties won’t be as strong and won’t last as
long.
|
Lavender
is profoundly relaxing, calming and uplifting. Buy lavender essential oil. It is a mild antidepressant. Combine with feverfew, it helps alleviate
migraines and headaches. It is one of
the best herbs to use in the bath to relieve tension, stress and insomnia. Try a bath with a few drops of lavender
essential oil or a handful of lavender blossoms tied in a muslin bag, added
to warm water. Use as massage
oil. Lavender is generally considered
safe, though it’s recommended that pregnant women avoid using it internally
in large amounts. Traditionally used
to imbue courage and strength, lavender is a favorite herb for strengthening
the heart and mind in a stressful situation.
Many women use it during childbirth.
A drop or two of lavender essential oil rubbed directly on the feet and/or
back can bring gentle relief. Lavender
is also one of the herbs traditionally used to bathe the new baby. Lavender is an antibacterial, antifungal
and antiseptic agent. It is useful in
treating a host of infections, including staph, strep, colds and flus. Alone or combined with tea tree oil, it can
be applied directly to the skin to treat fungal infections such as ringworm
and nail fungus, or as a douche to treat vaginal yeast infections. It is an herbal antiseptic and is used to
disinfectant and heal scrapes, wounds and burns. A popular antispasmodic, lavender is used in
digestive formulas to relieve indigestion and is especially helpful for
calming stomach muscle spasms, which are sometimes caused by irritable bowel
syndrome and Crohn’s disease. Lavender
is generally considered safe, though it’s recommended that pregnant women
avoid using it internally in large amounts. |
|
|
Lemon
balm (Melissa officinalis) |
Lemon
balm is a fast-growing perennial hardy to Zones 4 through 9 and can be grown
as an annual in colder regions. It
self-sows easily. Lemon balm prefers
moist but well-drained soil and a bit of shade, though it will do nicely in
full sun as well. Sow seeds directly
in the soil in fall or start seeds indoors in spring. Its fragrance and flavor make an
impression. Leaves can be harvested
anytime during the growing season but are more flavorful before the plants
flower. When plants do begin to
flower, snip them back for a second crop of leaves The leaves retain their wonderful scent
when dried. |
Remedy
for heart disease (and heartache), depression and anxiety, nervous disorders
and a host of viral and bacterial infections.
Paralesus called lemon balm the “elixir of life” and Dioscorides used
it for “sweetening the spirit”. In the
1600s herbalist John Evelyn wrote “balm is sovereign for the brain,
strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing away melancholy”. Rich concentration of lemon balm’s volatile
oils, specifically citral and citronellal, calm the nervous and digestive
systems, with antispasmodic actions. A
tea made of lemon balm and chamomile is an excellent remedy for stomach
distress and nervous exhaustion. It
also functions as a mild sedative, especially helpful for insomnia caused by
grief and sadness. Lemon balm is high
on the list of herbs used to treat heartache and depression. Lemons balm soothes and calms a restless
child. Lemon balm is also rich in
polyphenols, which have a strong antiviral action which is effective against
herpes and shingles. Herbalists often
combine lemon balm with licorice to create a particularly effective remedy
against the virulent herpes virus.
Because it’s so delicious lemon balm is often prepared as tea, but it
is also tasty as a culinary herb.
Lemon balm is considered a thyroid inhibitor, those suffering from
hypothyroidism or low thyroid activity should use it only under the guidance
of a health care practitioner. |
Citral,
citronellal, tannins, bitters, polyphenols, vitamins C, calcium, magnesium, catechin, resins,
flavonoids. |
|
Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra) native
to Mediterannean. |
Licorice
is a tender perennial hardy in Zones 7 to 10.
Prefers hot weather and full sun or partial shade, sandy soil, with a
pH between 6 and 8. Like all members
of the Leguminosae family, licorice fixes nitrogen in the soil. Seeds germinate well and quickly and plants
grow to be quite large and handsome.
Space plants 1 ½ to 2 feet apart in a sunny spot in the garden. Keep the soil moist until the seeds have
germinated and young plants are well established. Licorice needs a few years of growth to
develop its full medicinal potential.
Harvest roots in the fall of the third or fourth year (after the
fourth year the roots get tough).
Slice of chop the fresh roots, dry them and store in an airtight glass
jar.
|
Licorice
is 50 times sweeter than table sugar, but its glycyrrhizic acid, not
sugar. When broken down by the stomach
glycyrrhizic acid yields anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic properties that
act similarly to hydrocortisone and corticosteroids in the body. Licorice is employed as a demulcent,
antiviral, and anti-inflammatory. It
is the herb of choice for soothing irritated and inflamed tissue such as in
cases of sore throat, bronchial inflammation and stomach and bowel
irritation. It is very helpful for
both gastric and peptic ulcers.
Licorice tea and tinctures tone and strengthen the endocrine gland system
and are a specific remedy for adrenal exhaustion (useful in menopause). Licorice gently supports the adrenal glands
ability to produce hormones and aids in the breakdown and elimination of
excess or “worn-out” hormones via the liver and kidneys. Licorice is often considered to be estrogen
stimulating. Licorice has a long history
of use relieving throat inflammation and for strengthening the vocal
cords. It has a thick, sweet flavor,
which makes it a nice addition to tea in small amounts. The root can be almost too sweet, and some
people find its flavor rather offensive when brewed by itself. To increase its palatability blend it with
other herbs in syrups, teas and tinctures.
You can also eat the licorice root dried or fresh whole root. Children particularly enjoy chewing on
licorice sticks. Glycyrrhizic acid can
cause sodium retention and potassium loss, resulting in stress to the heart
and kidneys. Individuals with a
history of high blood pressure, water retention, heart palpitations, and
other signs of heart and/or kidney stress should use licorice only under the
guidance of a qualified health-care practitioner. |
Glycyrrhizic
acid (also known glycyrrhic acid), phytoestrogens, coumarins, flavonoids,
essential oil, polysaccharides. |
|
Marsh
Mallow (Althaea officinalis) |
Marsh
mallow is a quick-growing perennial handsomely adorned with soft gray-green
leaves and lovely pink flowers. It is
not fussy and once established will grow easily. Give it lots of space, as it grow larger
than 4 feet. Marsh mallow gravitates
to marshy, damp areas. It will grow
well in full sun or partial shade; prefers loamy, moist soil and needs light
to moderate watering. It prefers a
moderate climate in Zones 5 to 8.
Though seeds germinate quickly and reliably they have to be stratified
(chilled in winterlike conditions) first.
Beginners may have better luck starting with one or two young plants
from a nursery. Be sure to purchase Althaea officinalis which is the most
medicinal. It is primarily the root
that is used but the leaf and flower are also used. Member of the mallow
family which includes hollyhock, okra and a variety of medicinal plants, most
are sweet and delicious, demulcent and emollient useful as both food and
medicine. Greeks and Romans feasted on
it. The French turned march mallow the
plant into marshmallow the confection, cooking the gummy juices of the roots
with eggs and sugar, then whipping the mixture until light and airy. Modern marshmallows share only a common
name.
|
Marsh
mallow root is more than 11 percent mucilage and 37 percent starch, making it
an exceptionally rich, nutritive tonic.
The roots large sugar molecules swell upon contact with water,
creating the sweet mucilaginous gel that marsh mallow is so famous for. Because of its sweet flavor and rich
mucilaginous properties marshmallow is a popular medicine for soothing all
manner of inflamed tissue, specifically of the respiratory and digestive
systems and skin. Soothes the bladder
and kidneys and is an important ingredient in formulas for treating bladder
and kidney infections. Neutralizes
excess acid in the stomach, which is useful for stomach ulcer. While not an infection fighter its soothing
demulcent action makes it an excellent aid for dry coughs, as it lubricates
and moisturizes the lungs. Externally
marsh mallow is soothing to the skin.
A paste of marsh mallow mixed with chamomile tea or water makes an
excellent poultice for moisturizing dry chapped skin. Marsh mallow is also effective in the bath
for soothing itchy, dry skin, including eczema. Marshmallow is good for keeping babies’
bottom soft and dry. Marsh mallow is a
perfectly benign herb with a long record of safe use among those who know its
virtues. |
|
|
Mullein
(Verbascum thapsus) |
Wayside
weed with long history of effective use in medicine. Mullein is a biennial, the first year it
forms a woolly rosette, and the second year it sends up tis tall (up to 7
feet( flowering stalk, sets seed, and then withers and dies. Mullein will grow in just about any soil
and in any condition but does marvelously planted in full sun in
well-drained, nutrient-rich soil with a pH ranging from 5 to 7.5. Mullein is easy to start from seed, and
once established in the garden will self-sow easily. Give plenty of room to grow and plant it
towards the back of your garden or as a centerpiece. Will thrive in Zones 3 to 8. The leaf, flower and root are used.
|
Mullein
leaf is both an antispasmodic and an expectorant. It is renowned as a remedy for deep-seated
or spastic coughs, bronchial congestion, chest colds, allergies and other
ailments that involve respiratory stress.
The leaf can be rolled and smoked with other healing herbs, such as
marijuana, but not tobacco, as a treatment for asthma. The leaf is also a favorite remedy for
glandular imbalances and is often combined with Echinacea root and cleavers
in tonics for glandular health.
Mullein leaf also makes an effective poultice for boils, glandular
swelling, bruises and insect bites and it can be added to the bath for
relieving rheumatic pain. The small
yellow flowers that creep up the stalk, slowly opening to the sun, are
effective anodynes (they relieve pain) with antiseptic and infection-fighting
properties. Mullein flower oil has
long been famous as an effective treatment for ear infection caused by upper
respiratory congestion. Just a few
drops of warm oil down each ear will relieve the pain in minutes and reverse
the infection in a few days. When used externally the tiny hairs on the
underside of the leaves can be irritating to the skin, in which case simply
wrap the leaf in cheesecloth or muslin before applying. |
Polysaccharides,
flavonoids, sterols, mucilage, saponins. |
|
Nettle (Urtica dioica, U. urens) |
The
ancient Greeks and Romans cultivated more acres of nettle than any other
crop. Nettles were once one of most important plants in the manufacture of
cloth finer than cotton or linen.
Incredibly benevolent (except for its sting) and incredibly
beneficial. Nettle grows wild
throughout the United States and Canada and is easily propagated from
runners, which you can gather in the spring or fall from an established stand
of plants. The plants prefer fertile,
rich soil and the semi-shaded, moist environments of stream banks. The gives a nasty sting. The sting comes from needle-like
protrusions on the stems and undersides of the leaves that contain formic
acid, the same chemical that causes the pain in bee stings and ant
bites. The formic acid is destroyed by
heating, drying or mashing the leaves.
Wear gloves to harvest it. Pick
the nettle tops while still young.
Steam thoroughly, being certain there are no little stingers left
unsteamed. Sprinkle generously with
olive oil and fresh lemon juice, serve with crumbled feta cheese. |
Used as
a remedy for gout, rheumatism, anemia, exhaustion, menstrual difficulties,
skin problems and hay fever, to mention a few. Nettle is rich in a full spectrum of
vitamins and minerals, especially iron and calcium, nettle is an excellent
tonic herb and is useful for “growing pains” in young children, when their
bones and joints ache, as well as for older folks with “creaky” joints. Its antihistamine properties make it an
excellent remedy for allergies and hay fever.
Because of its nutritive properties and positive effects on the liver,
nettle is also an excellent tonic for the reproductive system of both men and
women. It is frequently included in
formulas for PMS and other menstrual difficulties, fertility issues, and
menopausal issues, and nettle seeds are used as both a preventative and a
curative for prostate issues. Despite
its “sting” which can most definitely leave large, sore welts, nettle is
generally considered a wonderfully safe, edible medicinal plant. |
Calcium,
iron, protein, potassium, formic acid, acetylcholine, sulfur, beta-carotene,
vitamin K, flavonoids. |
|
Oats (Avena sativa, A. fatua) |
Oats are
among the earliest grains to be cultivated and have long been valued as a
nutritious cereal for people and farm animals alike. Oats are hardy annuals that prefer full sun
in open ground. They grow best in
Zones 4 to 9 but are adaptable. The
seeds germinate readily. Presoak them
overnight, then direct-sow into the soil.
Keep the soil moist until the seeds have germinated, then water
moderately. For medicinal purposes,
oats are ready to harvest when the grains are fully mature but still in their
“green” stage. The fully ripe oats are often served as heart-healthy oatmeal
or ground into oat flour. Collect oats
on a sunny morning. Hold a basket in
one hand, and use your other hand as a rake, pulling upward, letting the
grains fall gracefully into the basket.
|
Most
herbalists prefer the milky green tops for medicinal purposes, but the
oat-straw contains silica as well as other minerals needed for strong bones,
hair, teeth and nails. The milky green
tops are especially renowned for their demulcent (soothing) and nourishing
effect on the central nervous system effectively relieving all manner of
nervous stress, exhaustion, irritation and anxiety. Valuable for multiple sclerosis, in which
the mycelium sheath surrounding the nerve endings has been damaged, oats
reduce fatigue, strengthen the muscles and improve nerve function. In combination with lemon balm milky oats
can also be used to counteract hyperactivity in children and adults. Combined with damiana root and nettle
root, they’re used as a sexual tonic for men with impotency problems. Combined with oat-straw they are often used
in formulas to strengthen and heal bones and as a source of dietary calcium,
especially during pregnancy and menopause.
Oatmeal, made from the ripe grains, is also healing and is one of
those reliable “kitchen medicines” readily available. For those convalescing after surgery or
during chemotherapy oatmeal porridge is soothing and healing with
anti-inflammatory properties. Oats are
a wonderful topical remedy for soothing skin irritation and itchiness. A warm oatmeal bath is a well-known remedy
for irritated, chapped, dry skin or sunburn.
Simply apply the “milk” from the top of the oatmeal bowl and let it
sit on your face for 20 to 30 minutes.
Oats are perfectly and wonderfully safe (unless you have an allergy). |
Silicon,
sterols, flavonoids, starch, protein, calcium, silica, B vitamins. |
|
Peppermint
(Mentha piperata) |
Peppermint
prefers rich, moist, well-drained soil and full sun to partial shade. It does bets in Zones 5 to 9. Peppermint starts easily from root
divisions and cuttings. The best way
to keep peppermint from spreading beyond its place is to continue to harvest
its leaves and flowers for teas, cooking, herbal remedies and mint
jelups.
|
Peppermint
is renowned as a digestive aid and is the herb of choice for relieving nausea
and gas. As an antispasmodic, it helps
muscles relax and can reduce stomach cramping and spasms, and its clean,
refreshing flavors is welcome after a bout of indigestion or vomiting. A drop or two of peppermint essential oil
in a cup of warm water quickly removes the foul taste and odor left after
stomach upset. It’s a common
ingredient in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and chewing gum, as well as cleaning
products and disinfectants. Peppermint
also has anodyne properties useful for reducing the pain of headaches, bee
stings, burns and even toothache. Try
tea made with equal parts of chamomile and peppermint for indigestion and
headaches caused by indigestion. Add
it to blender drinks, soups, salads, and pestos for its refreshing flavor and
nutritive value. Perfectly safe, no
known reactions or harmful side effects. |
Volatile
oils (menthol and menthone), flavonoids, phenolic acid, triterpines, calcium,
magnesium, potassium. |
|
Plantain
(Plantago major, P. lanceolata, P.
psyllium) |
Plantain
is the second most common useful weed after dandelion. It grows everywhere,
in lawns and empty lots, in cracks in the sidewalks, on roads and paths. If you don’t have a ready stock of plantain
already growing, just till up a little soil, preferably in full sun, water it
infrequently and wait. Plantain will
show up. If you get impatient collect
some ripe seeds from your neighbor’s patch and sprinkle them in your freshly
tilled soil. Next year you’ll have
your own patch. Plantain is nutrient dense and although it can be bitter and stingy
as it gets older, it’s a tasty ingredient in many wild-food dishes. The plantain seeds, which grow at the top
of a long slender stalk, are rich in mucilage and mildly laxative. A cultivated variety of plantain, P. psyllium is grown for its large,
abundant seeds, which are used as bulk laxatives. Psyllium seed is the main ingredient in
Metamucil. Perfectly safe, no known
reactions or harmful side effects. |
Plantain
draws toxicity from the body. It has a
long history of use as a remedy for blood poisoning and is considered an
“alternative” (blood purifier), its rich nutrients stimulate the liver and
enrich or “cleanse” the blood. It is
used for all manner of liver problems, including poor digestion and
assimilation, hepatitis, jaundice, skin eruptions and eruptive personalities
(too much heat in the body). Plantain
makes a great poultice. The leaves can
be chopped, mashed and placed directly over the problem area. Or the leaves can be made into a strong tea
and a cloth soaked in the tea is placed directly over the area. As a poultice plantain is a highly
effective remedy for the bites and stings of insects, boils and other
eruptive skin disorders and any deep-seated infection. Plantain has such excellent drawing
properties that it can be used to remove sliver that are too deep to pull
out. Soak the area of the sliver in a
very hot plantain tea for 20 to 30 minutes.
You can increase the effectiveness by adding a tablespoon or two of
sea salt. Then apply mashed plantain
leaves and wrap in place. Change the
poultice two or three times during the day and repeat until the sliver is
close enough to the surface of the skin to pull out. Plantain also has styptic and hemostatic
properties, meaning that it can help check bleeding. Place the mashed herbs directly on the
wound until the blood flow slows or stops.
As a tea or tincture, plantain can also be used to stanch heavy
menstrual bleeding, it is more effective mixed with yarrow and nettle (or
shepherd’s purse). It is also an
excellent wound healer and shortens recovery time. |
Mucilage,
fatty acids, protein, starch, vitamins B, C and K, allantoin, bitters. |
|
Red
Clover (Trifolium pretense) |
Red
clover is both an effective nitrogen fixing cover crop and a reliable and
effective medicine. A hardy perennial red clover is easy to sow and quick to
grow. It does well in Zones 4 to 9 and
prefers loamy, well-drained soil and full sun. It is a legume and like all members of the
Leguminosae family, red clover sends roots deep into the earth and fixes
nitrogen in the soil. Red clover’s pretty
pink blossoms bloom throughout the summer and can be harvested just as soon
as they open. Use fresh or dry. Though
the leaves are used medicinally it is the flowers that are prized. They are at their prime when a bright pink
or red. Don’t harvest flowers that are
turning brown, and when buying dried herbs, be wary of brownish blossoms.
|
Red
clover offers a rich bounty of nutrients that support the entire body. High in beta-carotene, calcium, vitamin C,
a whole spectrum of B vitamins, and essential trace minerals such as
magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, and selenium. This wildflower is one of nature’s best
vitamin and mineral supplements. Red
clover has a long history of use as a blood and lymphatic cleanser. It is often included in formulas for skin
problems such as eczema and psoriasis, whether taken internally or externally
as a wash, and it is a favorite herb for lymphatic congestion and childhood
respiratory problems, effectively restoring vitality and health following a
respiratory infection. Red clover is a
favorite of many menopausal women, and both the flowers and the leaves
contain phytoestrogens (plant hormones) and isoflavones that have a
beneficial effect on menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes, mood swings and
night sweats, with sage and motherwort.
Red clover might be useful in maintaining healthy bone density. Though the FDA states “there is not
sufficient reason to suspect it of any medicinal value” studies conducted by
the National Cancer Institute suggest that red clover should be considered,
as a preventative agent and perhaps incorporated in a health-promoting tea
for people at risk for cancer. And red
clover tea is delicious by itself or with peppermint, spearmint, violet leaf. It’s a marvelous food too, the fresh
blossoms taste like little honey cups added to salads, blender drinks and
garden-fresh soups. Red clover has
blood thinning properties and should not be used by those who are taking
heart medication or who have any type of blood-thinning problem. Discontinue red clover for 2 weeks before
and after surgery. |
Polysaccharides,
isoflavones, salicylates, coumarins, cyanogenic glycosides, protein,
beta-carotene, B vitamins, vitamin C, iron, silicon. |
|
St.
John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) |
St.
John’s Wort is a hardy weed. It is a
sun-loving, hardy perennial, preferring somewhat dry soil but will do almost
as well in partial shade and some drenching.
It thrives in Zones 3 to 9 and prefers soil with a pH of 6 to 7. It’s rather rangy, growing to 3 or 4 feet
on long, spare stalks. When in full
bloom St. John’s wort is a beauty. It germinates easily from seed, though
seeds need to be stratified (treated to a winterlike chill) for best
germination. Once established in your
garden, it will readily self-sow. You
can purchase a plant or two at a nursery, but make sure you’re getting H. perforatum, for medicinal
purposes. St. John’s wort has
naturalized in many parts of the globe and can e found growing wild in sunny
meadows, on dry hillsides, and even in open fields along roadways. H.
perforatum is distinctive because of the tiny oil glands in the leaf,
when held to the light, they look like tiny pinpricks covering the surface of
the leaf. Gathering St. John’s wort is
best done in the afternoon on a sunny day when the flowers will be dry. The flowers are at their best just as the
buds begin to open. To tell if they
are ready, press a bud between your finger.
If there’s a spurt of purple or deep red, the buds are ready. If not, it’s either too early or too
late. Check daily. The window for optimum harvesting is short.
|
From
ancient Greeks to the Middle Ages St. John’s wort has been considered to be
imbued with magical powers and was used to ward off evil and protect against
illness. Dioscorides, the famed Greek
herbalist, mentioned the use of the herb for sciatica and other nerve
problems. Theophrastus recommended it
for external wounds and cuts and both Galen and Paracelsus included it as an
important healing herb in their pharmacopoeia. St. John’s wort can be very effective for
treating mild depression, anxiety, stress, tension, nerve damage, and
seasonal affective disorder (SAD). To
be effective against stress and depression, St. John’s wort needs to be taken
over a 2 to 3 week period, and it is often cycled over several months to
treat chronic depression and stress.
Hypericin, one of the herb’s active constituents, increases the
metabolism of serotonin and melatonin, which aid the body’s ability to
receive and store light. Hyperforin,
another important constituent, contributes to emotional stability by slowing
the uptake of those “feel-good” neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin
and noradrenaline, allowing them to circulate longer in the body. Whether taken internally or applied topically
St. John’s wort has marked antibacterial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory
properties, which make it helpful for treating bacterial and viral infections
such as herpes and shingles.
Preliminary studies indicate an ability to inhibit the AIDS virus. The rich red oil made from the bright yellow
flowers is one of the best remedies for trauma to the skin. It is applied topically to soothe and heal
bruises, sprains, burns and injuries of all kinds. It not only relives pain but also promotes
tissue repair and speeds recovery. St. John’s wort can cause photosensitivity
to sunlight in some individuals. If
your skin becomes rashy, itchy or red, discontinue use. If you are taking any antidepressant
medications and want to substitute for them or complement them with St.
John’s wort, do so only under the guidance of a qualified health care
practitioner. Although there is no
history of St. John’s wort being contraindicated during pregnancy, some
herbalists suggest that pregnant women not take it internally. |
Hypericin,
hyperforin, pseudohypericin,
procyanidins, tannins, flavonoids. |
|
Spearmint
(Mentha spicata) |
Spearmint
is second only to peppermint as the most popular of mints and is considered
the oldest and the others are the offspring of spearmint. Spearmint is a quick-growing perennial in
Zones 4 to 9. Like most mints it
spreads by runners. It’s easy to start
from root divisions and/or cutting, but you won’t want to start from
seed. The seeds won’t be true to type
and often seed-started mints are less potent than the parent plant. Spearmint especially thrives near
water. Keep spearmint separated from
other types of mint.
|
Spearmint
is sweeter, milder and less pungent than peppermint and tends to be better
for children. Combined with catnip,
it’s an excellent herb for children with a fever. Or blend it in equal proportions with lemon
balm to calm hyperactivity and anxiety in children. Spearmint is a mild digestive aid and is
lovely as a before-dinner aperitif or after-dinner digestif. Simply make a strong tea and mix with
sparkling water, and perhaps a handful of fresh rasberries or
blueberries. Spearmint has amphoteric
properties that moves in the direction the body needs. It’s a mild stimulant but also has relaxing
properties that serve to strengthen the nervous system, both calming and
energizing at the same time. It has
both warming and cooling properties.
As the menthol evaporates, it imparts a cooling sensation to the skin
and digestive system, but as the herb penetrates it stimulates blood flow,
causing a warm sensation. Spearmint’s
refreshing flavor is used in everything from toothpaste and mouthwash to soda
and tea. It is delicious in salads,
grain dishes, cold soups, fresh fruit compotes and sliced fruit dishes. Spearmint helps to sweeten the mouth after
sickness such vomiting. Safe. |
Essential
oils, B vitamins, vitamin C, potassium, flavonoids, tannins. |
|
Valerian
(Valeriana officinalis) |
Brought
to the United States from European herb gardens by colonists. Valerian is an easy to grow perennial that
does well in a variety of soil conditions and temperatures, but it prefers
partial shade to full sun and moist, rich soil. It is rather tall (3 to 5 feet) graceful
plant with lacy white flower clusters that bloom through much of the
summer. It’s hardy to Zone 4 or 3 with
winter protection. The seeds are so
easy to germinate that even beginning gardeners should have no problem with
them. Keep the soil well watered,
valerian loves moist soil. Once
established, this hardy perennial will self-sow easily and generously. Fresh
valerian root has an earthy odor that has been likened to that of wet soil or
violets. The dried root’s odor is more
akin to that of dirty socks. Depending
on the individual the smell is either relished or deemed offensive. The taste is better when the root is
fresh.
|
Valerian root is one the safest and most
powerful herbal nervines, used for all manner of stress, insomnia and
anxiety. It is also excellent for
relieving muscle pain. Many people
prefer to take valerian in tincture or capsule form, rather than as a tea. Its name derives from the Latin word valere, meaning “to be well” or “to be
strong”. Valerian is a remedy primarily for stress, tension, insomnia and
nervous system disorders. Studies show
that it works by depressing activity in the central nervous system and
relaxing the smooth muscles of the uterus, colon and bronchial passages. Two compounds, valerenic acid and
valerenal, have ben found to induce sleep and indirectly raise levels of
gamma-aminobutyric acid, a neurotransmitter that decreases central
nervous-system activity and acts as a muscle relaxant. Valerian is effective
both as a long-term nerve tonic and as a remedy for acute nerve problems such
as headaches and pain. Valerian also
has a tonic effect on the heart and is especially recommended in cases of
irregular heartbeat and anxiety that affects the heart. It is often combined with hawthorne berry
to treat high blood pressure and irregular heartbeat. For those people for
whom valerian works, it works well.
Some people find it irritating and stimulating, rather than relaxing. The root is rich in isovalerenic and
valerenic acids, which give it powerful nervine properties. Because of the volatile nature of its
aromatic oils, valerian root is generally infused rather than decocted. Generally considered safe. However, valerian doesn’t agree with
everyone and for some people it can be irritating and stimulating, rather
than calming and sedating. If you take
too much valerian you’ll begin to have rubbery-like feeling in your muscles,
like they are too relaxed, or a feeling of heaviness. Cut back the dosage so that you feel
relaxed but alert. Avoid taking large
doses of valerian for an extended period of time, instead, use modest doses
for just 2 to 3 weeks, with a week’s break before you begin taking the doses
again. |
Isovalerenic
acid, valerenic acid, caffeic acid, tannins, sesquiterpenes, glycosides,
essential oils, calcium, magnesium, B vitamins. |
|
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) |
Yarrow
is a common wayside plant found in most temperate climates of the world. It may be the most commonly used medicinal
plant in the world. Yarrow grows
freely and joyfully in the wild and, when invited, in the garden. A perennial, it germinates easily from seed
and, once established, will self-sow readily.
Yarrow will thrive in most types of well-drained soil with a pH of 4
to 7 and prefers full sun, but happily adapts to partial shade, cold or hot
weather, wet or dry conditions. For
medicinal purposes, look for the white yarrow (Achillea millefolium) or native pink varieties. The colorful hybrids are bred for
aesthetics, rather than medicinal properties.
Though it can be harvested throughout the growing season, yarrow has
the richest concentration of medicinal oils when it is in flower. S |
Yarrow
has antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and astringent properties and is highly
regarded for healing wounds, bruises and sprains. Like spearmint, yarrow is amphoteric,
meaning it moves in the direction it’s needed in the body. It is both stimulating and sedative. It is used to stimulate delayed or absent
menstrual cycle and helps ease and relax uterine tension and menstrual
cramps. It is also effective at
reducing heavy bleeding during menstruation.
As a uterine relaxant and styptic, it’s also a useful during
childbirth, many midwives carry yarrow tincture when attending a birth. Yarrow is a styptic, meaning that it stops
bleeding. It’s often mixed with
shepherd’s purse, another powerful styptic, as first aid to stanch excessive
bleeding, whether from a cut, a deep wound, or a simple nosebleed. Just take several leaves mash them up and
apply a thick poultice to the wound. Yarrow is rich in volatile oils,
specifically chamazulene, camphor and linalool, which stimulate blood flow to
the surface of the skin and aid in elimination via the pores. This helps explain its long-standing
reputation as a diaphoretic, an herb that promotes sweating and thus can help
reduce fevers by “driving out” the heat and naturally cooling the body, used
in a bath. Yarrow also has
antispasmodic properties and is used to relieve both menstrual and stomach
cramps. It is often combined with
ginger for this purpose, whether taken internally or applied topically as a
poultice. Yarrow is bitter and bitter
herbs stimulate liver function and aid in digestion by stimulating the
secretion of digestive enzymes. Once
nicknamed “cure-all” yarrow is one of the most versatile and healing plants
we can grow in our gardens. Generally
yarrow is considered safe and nontoxic.
But because of its stimulating action on the uterine muscles, it
should be avoided during pregnancy, especially in the early stages, though it
is used at childbirth to facilitate labor and stop excessive bleeding. Also, yarrow can cause an allergic reaction
in some people. Discontinue use if you
develop itchy eyes and/or a rash. |
Linalool,
pinene, thujone, camphor, azulene, chamazulene, proazulene, beta-carotene,
vitamin C and E, flavonoids. |
Source: Gladstar ‘12
In 1948 Dr. Nikolai Lazarev and his protégé
Dr. Israel Brekhman, along with a team of researchers from the Siberian Academy
of Sciences, tested 158 herbal folk remedies from the Soviet Union, Europe and
Asia. They determined that some of the
remedies contained extracts from plants with exceptional abilities to promote
what they described as “a state of nonspecific increased resistance.” Certain herbs support the healthy function of
every system in the body and protect it from biological, chemical,
environmental and psychological stressors.
The term adaptogen, from the
Latin adaptare, to describe this
special class of herbs that are identified by three fundamental criteria (1)
Nonspecific resistance – the herb must increase the body’s resistance to a
broad range of agents, including physical (heat, cold and exertion), chemical
(toxins and heavy metals, and biological (bacteria and viruses); (2)
Normalizing action – the herb should normalize whatever pathological changes or
reactions have occurred. For example,
regardless of whether the thyroid gland is under – or overactive, a true
adaptogen will help steer it toward normal function; and (3) Innocuous effect –
the herb must cause minimal, if any, physiological disturbance or side effects
and be very low in toxicity. In 1968,
Dr. Brekhman published the results of these studies. Of all the herbs selected for testing, only
four met the criteria of true adaptogen: Eleutherococcus
senticosus (sometimes called Siberian ginseng or eleuthero); Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng or Koren
ginseng); Rhaponticum carthamoides
(rhaponticum or luzea); and Rhodiola
rosea (golden root, roseroot, or Arctic root). Subsequent research added Schizandra chinesis (schizandra) and Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) to the
list (Brown ’04: 56, 57, 58).
A rating for adaptogens was developed:
++++ Substantial scientific research showing
strong effects, extensive use in folk medicine, positive clinical observation
of strong effects
+++ Smaller number of good-quality studies
showing more moderate effects, use in folk medicine, positive clinical
observations of moderate effects
++ Limited number of studies of mixed quality,
use in folk medicine, positive clinical observations
+ Either no scientific studies or studies that
are difficult to interpret because of poor quality, use in folk medicine, some
positive clinical observations
_ Lack of scientific research or inaccessible
scientific research (e.g. foreign language publication only), use in folk
medicine, no clinical observation
6 Adaptogen Medicinal Rating
|
Adaptogen |
Panax ginseng |
Eleutherococcus senticosus |
Rhodiola rosea |
Rhaponticum carthamoides |
Schizandra chinensis |
Withania somnifera |
|
Antistress |
+++ |
++++ |
++++ |
+ |
++ |
+ |
|
Physical
Performance |
++ |
++ |
++ |
+ |
++ |
+ |
|
Mental
Performance |
++ |
++ |
++ |
+ |
++ |
+ |
|
Anabolic
(ATP and CP) |
++ |
+++ |
+++ |
++ |
++ |
- |
|
Antioxidant |
++ |
++ |
+++ |
+ |
- |
- |
|
Immune
Modulation |
+ |
++ |
++ |
++ |
- |
+ |
|
Anticancer |
++ |
++ |
++ |
+ |
- |
- |
Source:
Brown ’04: 80, 81
7 Prospective Adaptogens
|
Herb |
Actions |
Uses |
Contraindications |
|
Aralia mandshurica |
Antioxidant,
protects against radiation |
Physical
performance |
Pregnancy,
breastfeeding |
|
Codonopsis pilosula (dangshen) |
Antioxidant,
antistress, stimulant, protects against radiation, improves immune defenses |
Fatigue,
diarrhea, endurance, stress tolerance |
Pregnancy,
breastfeeding unknown, needs more study |
|
Cordyceps sinensis |
Antistress,
improves immune defenses |
Enhances
physical strength and endurance, pneumonia, respiratory infections |
May
affects levels of certain medications, including erythromycin, ketoconazole,
carbamazepine, azithromycin, antibiotics, and birth control pills. Pregnancy and breastfeeding unknown |
|
Echinacea purpurea |
Antioxidant,
improves immune defenses |
infections |
May
interfere with the liver’s metabolism of medications, may trigger allergic
reactions, asthma, stop prior to surgery.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding unknown |
|
Gingko biloba |
Antioxidant,
modulates neurotransmitters, may inhibit clotting by platelets |
Mental
function, stroke prevention, erectile function, vascular disease, macular
degeneration |
May
cause bleeding, bruising, stop 36 hours before surgery, do not use during
pregnancy or while breastfeeding |
|
Lepdium meyenii (maca) |
Aphrodisiac,
energy |
Fertility,
perimenopause, sexual function, malnutrition |
Breast
cancer, prostate cancer – do not use, occasional overstimulation, pregnancy,
breastfeeding unknown |
|
Rhododendrum caucasium |
Antioxidant,
blocks carcinogen absorption and 20% of fat absorption through intestines. Increases energy in heart muscles and uric
acid excretion. Relaxes blood vessels,
lowers blood pressure |
Physical
performance, high blood pressure prevention, cancer prevention, weight loss,
antigout |
None
known. Pregnancy, breastfeeding unkown |
Source:Brown
’04: 82, 83
Rhodiola rosea grows wild in the high, dry, rocky mountain ranges of northern Asia, Mongolia
and Siberia, as well as in the subarctic regions of Alaska, Europe and
Scandanavia. You might find a swath of yellow Rhodiola rosea flowers blooming on the cliffs just below the snow
line. Rhodiola rosea has a tough, pale root containing a dark sap. When cut, the root gives off the aroma of a
rose. From the root, tough stems rise 12
to 30 inches. Sometimes multiple stems
sprout from the same root. Blooming at
the top of each stem is the striking yellow flower. Extensive testing shows that Rhodiola rosea enhances performance and aids survival
against the most severe physical stressors.
Like other adaptogens, Rhodiola
rosea has very few side effects.
Animal studies indicate that the herb would be unlikely to cause serious
physical harm in humans unless the dose exceeded 20,000 milligrams. Considering that the usual clinical doses
range from 100 to 400 milligrams a day, the margin of safety is enormous. The ancient Greeks used Rhodalia rosea. In 77 A.D., the Greek physician Dioscorides documented
the medical application of the plant, which he then called rodia riza, in his classic medical text De Materi Media. Chinese
emerors sent expeditions to Siberia to bring back “golden root” for medicinal
preparations. The people of central Asia
consider a tea brewed from Rhodiola rosea
to be the most effective treatment for cold and flu. Mongolian physicians prescribe it for
tuberculosis and cancer. In Siberia today, it is said that people who drink Rhodiola rosea tea will live to be more
than 100. The herb is still given to
newlyweds to assure fertility and the birth of healthy children. For centuries the details of how and where to
harvest the wild root were a closely guarded secret among member of certain
Siberian families, who would transport Rhodiola
rosea down ancient trails in the Atlas and Caucasus mountains and trade it
for Georgian wine, fruit and honey. In
1725 the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus gave the herb its modern name, Rhodiola rosea, and recommended it as a
treatment for hernia, hysteria, headache, and vaginal discharge. Fifty years
later, it earned a place in the first Swedish pharmacopoeia, a complete listing
of all medicinal preparations. Research on Rhodiola
rosea and other medicinal herbs was part of the Soviet Union’s great push
to compete with the West (Brown ’04: 63, 52, 53).
The root of Rhodiola rosea contains six groups of bioactive compounds. (1)
Phenylpropanoids: rosavin, rosin, rosarin; (2) Pehnylethanol derivatives:
salidroside (rhodioloside), tyrosol; (3) Flavonoids: rhodiolin, rodionin,
rodiosin, acetylrodalgin, tricin; (4) Monoterpines: rosiridol, radaridin; (5)
Triterpines: daucosterol, beta-sitosterol and (6) Phenolic acids: chlorogenic
acid and hyroxycinnamicacid, gallic acids.
The 1989 Soviet pharmacopoeia set forth the new standard that products
sold as Rhodiola rosea must contain 3 percent rosavins and 0.8 to 1.0 percent
salidrosides. This replicates the ratio
found naturally in the roots. In order
to provide maximum health benefits, products should contain rosavins and
salidrosides in a 3:1 ratio. The label
should also say that the product contains only Rhodiola rosea, not a mix of
Rhodiola species. If the label says just
“rhodiola” or “arctic root” you have no way of knowing if it is the right
species. Manufacturers extract the herb
using hot water, alcohol, or sometimes both.
Tablets and capsules made with Rhodiola
rosea root extract are stable and do not require refrigeration. Although the herb can be paired with food it
is much better absorbed on an empty stomach.
Dosage is optimally times 20 to 30 minutes before a meal or 2 hours
after. The average dose of Rhodiola rosea is 200 to 400 milligrams
a day. If you need more than 400 mg a
day you should consult a physician familiar with the use of the herb. Some people are sensitive to the stimulating
effects of Rhodiola rosea. If this happens, cut back on caffeine. In general, it is best to start with one 100
milligram capsule ½ hour before breakfast, on an empty stomach. If after 3 days you show no signs of
overstimulation or other adverse effects, you can take a second 100 milligram
capsule ½ hour before lunch. Wait 3 to 7
days to see how you feel. Many people
notice improvement within a week, even on a modest dose. If you need more, add a second capsule ½ hour
before breakfast. After another 3 to 7
days, you can add a second capsule ½ hour before lunch, for a total of four
capsules – or 400 milligrams – a day.
Allow at least 2 weeks at this dosage to see results (Brown ’04: 66, 67
70, 148).
Medicinal Qualities of
Ginseng species and Rhodiola rosea
Compared
|
Adaptogen |
Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng or Korean ginseng) |
Eleutherococcus senticosus (eleuthero, Siberian ginseng) |
Rhodiola rosea (golden root, roseroot, arctic root) |
|
Physiological
Actions |
Increase
nitric oxide in immune cells, blood vessels and erectile tissues Increase
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol Increase
protein synthesis |
Increase
ACTH and cortisol, Norepinephrine, Serotonin and Protein Synthesis |
Increase
cellular energy production, protein synthesis, serotonin, norepinephrine and
dopamine. Support DNA repair,
antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anticancer.
Improves oxygen utilization |
|
Benefits
and Uses |
Antistress,
antifatigue, muscle strength and recovery time, reaction time and alertness,
intellectual performance, immune function and cancer prevention, sexual
function, most beneficial for people over 40 |
Antistress,
strength and endurance, intellectual productivity, immune cell response,
resilience during cancer treatment |
Antistress, antifatigue, anti-arrhythmic,
antibiotic, energy, physical and mental performance, strength, recovery time,
work capacity, alertness, emory, accuracy, learning ability, sexual function,
depression, anxity, post-traumatic stress disorder, menopausal symptoms, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome,
Parkinson’s, stroke, traumatic brain injury, altitude sickness, liver
detoxification and protection, side effects of chemotherapy |
|
Side
Effects |
Insomnia,
diarrhea, vaginal bleeding, swollen breasts, increased libido, headache,
nervousness, vomiting with excessive use, may be toxic in doses exceeding 3
grams per day, may raise blood pressure and cause agitation, confusion,
depression, may affect bleeding time and coagulation |
Diarrhea,
dizziness, hypertension, rapid or irregular heartbeat, insomnia, headache |
Agitation
or anxiety (occasional), intense dreams, headaches (rare) |
|
Interactions |
MAOI
(monoamine oxidase inhibitor), anticoagulants, steroids |
Anticoagulants,
interferes with some tests of digoxin levels |
Increase
effect of other stimulants |
|
Precautions
and Contraindications |
High
blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, bipolar disorder (manic depression)
– may cause mania, discontinue 7 days prior to surgery, do not use for more
than 3 months, may have long-term hormonal effects, do not use during
preganancy or when breastfeeding, do not use with steroids, not for children
under age 12 |
High
blood pressure, heart disease – use with caution, bipolar disorder (manic
depression) – can cause mania, schizophrenia – can cause agitation, women
with hormone-sensitive cancers or conditions, pregnancy breastfeeding
unknown, not for children under age 12, lack of safety evidence beyond 6
weeks |
Bipolar
disorder (manic depression) – use with caution, and only when condition is
under good control with mood stabilizers, pregnancy and breastfeeding unknown |
|
Adaptogen |
Rhaponticum carthamoides (luzea) |
Shizandra chinensis (schizandra) |
Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) |
|
Physiological
Actions |
Stimulant,
immune stimulation. Increase protein
synthesis |
Anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, improves oxygen utilitization |
Anabolic
(builds muscles). Immune
stabilization. Anticancer |
|
Benefits
and Uses |
Antistress,
antibiotic, strength, endurance, work capacity, liver health, fatigue,
weakness after illness, giardiasis |
Antistress,
antianxiety, energy, sleep, memory, physical strength and endurance, liver
detoxification and health |
Antistress,
physical strength and endurance |
|
Side
Effects |
Overstimulation |
Heartburn,
acid indigestion, stomach pain, allergic rashes |
Mild
gastrointestinal upset, immune suppression |
|
Interactions |
None
known |
None
known |
Increase
effects of sedatives and anti-anxiety medications |
|
Precautions
and Contraindications |
Pregnancy
and breastfeeding unknown |
Stomach
ulcers, acid reflux. Pregnancy and
breastfeeding unknown |
Stomach
ulcers, immune disorders. Pregnancy
and breastfeeding unkown |
Source: Brown ’04: 76, 77, 78, 79
The word ginseng
comes the Chinese gin (man) and seng (essence). Translated, it means “the crystallization of
the essence of earth in the form of man”.
Panax ginseng grows wild in
the mountains of Asia. Its medicinal properties
were first documented in the Sen-nung Pen
t’ao-ching, the most ancient Chinese pharmacopoeia. Panax
ginseng has been marketed under many names, including Asian ginseng, Korean
ginseng, Japanese ginseng and white ginseng.
Dozens of animal studies found that Panax
ginseng enhances stress resistance, as well as physical and mental
performance. A review of 34 human
studies found that most participants – from athletes to students to the elderly
– experience similar improvement. The
side effects of the herb are infrequent and mild. Long term use of the herb, especially in
doses exceeding 3 grams a day, is cause for concern. Some adolescent boys and others who have
taken megadoses of Panax ginseng to build strength and endurance have
experience estrogen like effects, such as painful swelling of the breasts,
other adverse reactions include high blood pressure, insomnia, skin eruptions,
diarrhea, irritability, agitation, confusion, and depression. By the 1950s wild Panax ginseng had become scarce and expensive, so Soviet scientists
began studying other plants with similar properties. Among them was Eleutherococcus senticosus, which caught the researchers’ attention
because of its long history of use as a strength builder in the fold medicine
of Russia and other parts of Asia. Eleutherococcus senticosus is a thorny
shrub that grows in Siberia and northern China.
It commonly goes by the name eleuthero, but it also is known as Asian
ginseng, Oriental ginseng, Siberian ginseng, and Russian ginseng. The herb’s only real connection to true
ginseng is its family of origin: Aralaceae.
Extensive animal and human studies have shown that eleuthero has most of
the adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng.
Eleuthero is remarkably low in side effects.
Rarely, it can cause headaches, insomnia, diarrhea, slight increases in
blood pressure and rapid or irregular heartbeat. It is not recommended for women who are
pregnant of breastfeeding, or those who have hormone-sensitive cancers. Eleuthero can trigger mania in bipolar
(manic-depressive) patients or agitation in schizophrenics (Brown ’04: 72, 73,
74).
The
ginseng genus Panax is used by
millions of healthy individuals for stimulation, added energy, and a sense of
well-being, daily, a panacea for the healthy who want to remain well for a long
time and if possible become healthier.
This cure-all reputation of the eastern Asian Panax ginseng is shared by the eastern North American species P. quinquefolium. Roots of this species have been shipped to
the Orient for several centuries at huge profits, and at the expense of this
species, which is nearly eradicated in much of the eastern woodland, where it
once thrived. Among the compounds isolated
from roots and leaves are (1) panaxin, acting as a stimulant of rhte midbrain,
heart and vessels, (2) panax acid, as a stimulant for the heart and general
metabolism (3) panaquilin, as a stimulant for internal secretions, (4) panacen
and spogenin, volatile oils that stimulate the central nervous system and (5)
ginsenin that lowers blood sugar. There
is no question among those in the Orient, continental Europe and a growing
number of users in North America that ginseng is the best tonic by far, but over
the years many other plants have utilized to give a lift - Fungus Cordyceps sinensis, Angiosperms,
Apiaceae, angelica archangelica (Angelica),
Peucedarnum ostruthium (Masterwort), Pimpinella sxifraga (Black caraway),
Araliaceae, Eleutherococcus senticosus
(Siberian ginseng), Panax ginseng
(Oriental ginseng), P quinquefolium
(American ginseng), P. repens,
Aristolochiaceae, Asarum caudatum (Wild
ginger), Asteraceae, Centaurea cyanus
(Cornflower), C. nigra (Knapweed), Doronicum falconeri, D. pardalianches, Eupatonium
perfoliatum (Boneset), Matricaria
chamomilla (Chamomile), Senecio
jacobaea (Tansy ragwort), Xanthium
canadense (Burweed), X. strumarium (Sea
burweed), Berberidaceae, Jeffersonia
diphylla (Twinleaf), Mahonia
aquifolium (Oregon grape), Cochlospermaceae, Cochlospermum niloticum, Conculvulaceae, Cressa cretica Ipomoea digitata (Fingerlaf Morning glory),
Cyperaceae, Cyperus iria, Ericaceae, Calluna vulgaris (Healther),
Euphorbiaceae, Croton eluteria, C. reflexifolius, Fabaceae, Caesalpinia bonduscella (Molucca bean), C. nuga, Cassia occidentalis (Coffe senna), Gentianaceae, Canscora diffusa, Geniana spp., Swertia
carolinensis (Columbo), Lamiaceae, Leonurus
cardiaca (Common motherwort) Liliaceae, Hypoxis
aurea, Smilax calophylla, S. china (china root), S. ornate, S. regelii, Menispermaceae, Cyclea peltata, Papaveraceae, Corydalis gavaniana, Decentra Canadensis (Squirrel corn), D. cucullaria (Dutchman’s breeches), Fumaria officinalis, F. parviflora, Piperaceae, Piper pthysticum (Kava), Ranunculaceae, Clematis hexasepala, Coptis teeta, C. trifolia
(Goldenthreade), Rubiaceae, Cinchona
calisaya (Yellowbark cinchona ), C.
edgeriana (Ledgerbark cinchona), Rutaceae, Euodia lepta, E. lunuankenda
(Vanashempaga), Ptelea trifoliate (Common
hop tree), Verbenaceae, Lantana camara, and L. microphylla. Hypoxis
aurea and several species of Smilax
of the Lilaceae have at one time approached ginseng in local popularity
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 373-376).
Rhaponticum carthamoides – rhaponticum or luzea for short – grows wild
in the high mountains and forests of southern Siberia and Kazakhstan. It also have been cultivated in Bulgaria and
Russia for use as a strengthening tonic.
Animal studies have shown that rhaponticum mildly stimulates the central
nervous system, improves memory, and learning and increases work capacity, all
with very low toxicity. Reportedly, it
also helps in cases of impotence, as well as depression or anxiety, most
notably those with “hypochondriac syndrome”.
More recent animal studies suggest that rhaponticum not only has
antibacterial and anticancer effects, it also stimulates production of red
blood cells. Although Schizandra chinensis has not undergone
the extensive study of other adaptogens, Soviety sientists considered it an
important ingredient in the sports performance forumulas. The herb, which grows in China (hence its
name Bei Wu Wi Zi and Chosen-Gimishi), has a long history of use in Chinese
medicines. Like other adaptogens,
schizandra improves concentration and endurance and has anti-inflammatory,
antidepressant, and calming actions, as well.
Preliminary research suggests that it may protect the body against HIV
(human immunodeficiency virus). In
animal studies, it reduced the effects of stress on mood, cognitive function,
glucose tolerance, immune defenses and sexual function. Active ingredients extracted from the fruit
of the herb may improve liver function and protect against liver damage. Schizandra’s potential side effects include
heartburn, acid indigestion, stomach pain, and allergic skin reactions. Its safety during pregnancy and breastfeeding
has not been established. Withania somnifera, better known as
ashwagandha, is a traditional Ayrurvedic medicine. In India, where its use
dates back more than 2,500 years, it is considered a rasayana – the term for
herbs that increase resistance and longevity and improve general health and
wellbeing. Studies show that the herb
indeed provides many of the same benefits as other adaptogens, including stress
reduction, memory enhancement, enhanced immune function, and antioxidant
activity. Ashwagandha occasionally
causes stomach upset and, more rarely, skin rashes. It is not recommended for use during
pregnancy or while breastfeeding (Brown ’04: 75).
III.
Probiotics
Humans
normally carry around 1012 bacteria on the skin and a thousand times
more 1014 inside the gastrointestinal tract (HA-20-11-10: 2). More than 99
percent of the microbes living in our intestines are bacteria, a very diverse
group, with 500 to 1,000 different species.
The rest are yeasts or parasites.
Bacteria are found not only in people, but in all forms of life -
Mammals, birds, fish, insects and plants.
Bacteria also live in water and in the earth. Just one teaspoon of rich soil contains over
one hundred million bacteria. Some
bacteria, such as Escherichia coli
(better known as E. coli) can double
their numbers in as little as twenty minutes.
In contrast, other bacteria, such as Bacteroides, the most numerous
bacteria in our intestine, usually estimated at 99% of total gut flora, need a
few hours to double their population.
Mycobacteria, the cause of tuberculosis, require almost a day. Bacteria can cause disease and in both plants
and animals. However the great majority
of bacteria that live in the soil perform positive and sometimes essential
roles. For example, the friendly
bacteria in the soil inhibit the growth of bavteria responsible for plant
disease. They also decompose plant
matter into simpler molecules that plants can use for food or as
nutrients. Of the remaining microbes in
the intestine the major yeast of the human microflora is Candida albicans. If its
numbers are kept low by competition with other microbes, it is harmless. But if it proliferates, it can cause various
illnesses, including diarrhea, vaginal yeast infection, and thrush, an
infection of the mouth, that’s common in infants and in people taking
antibiotics. Our microfloral balance, and thus our health, depends on which
microbes succeed. Microbes compete with
each other in several ways. Competition
favors microbes that can make use of available nutrients. We can give probiotic bacteria the edge with
a diet high in fiber, a prebiotic, because probiotics can digest fiber, whereas
many harmful bacteria cannot. On the
other hand, sugary foods help certain harmful microbes to thrive. A microbe can survive longer in the gut if it
can stick to cells of the intestines.
Otherwise, it’s likely to be swept out of the body by peristalsis. One of the ways probiotic bacteria help
protect us from harmful microbes is by successfully competing with them for
access to intestinal cells. Some
bacteria produce their own antibiotics.
These chemicals don’t affect us, but they inhibit the growth of other
bacteria. Also, as microbes digest food,
their metabolic byproducts may have adverse effects on their competitors. For example, when probiotics use fiber as
their nutritional source, some of their metabolic byproducts are acids similar
to vinegar – and yeasts don’t grow well in the presence of these acids
(Huffnagle ’07: 28, 29, 30 31).
The
microbial population of our digestive tract varies from place to place along
the tube. Different types of microbes
predominate at each site, and they serve different functions. Probiotics in the intestines, which can
actually affect the immune system, are the most important for overall
well-being. The balance of microbes in
our mouth helps to determine our oral health.
Probiotics counter cavities by keeping Sreptococcus mutans under control; thse are the bacteria that can
cause tooth decay, if their numbers are high enough. Other bacteria, such as Porphyromonoas gingivalis, may lead to gum disease if not kep in
check by competing microbes. The stomach
produces acid so strong that it could burn a hole in your living room
carpet. Though many microbes can survive
passage through the stomach, few are able to live there. The most notable of these is the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which is responsible for ulcers, and functional
dyspepsia. H. pylori produce chemicals that neutralize acid in their vicinity,
allowing them to survive. Certain
probiotics including species of Lactobacillus,
can also live in the stomach. They help
prevent ulcers by keeping H. pylori
numbers low. Food travels from the
stomach to the small intestines, where it’s broken down into components our
body can use for fuel (Huffnagle ’07: 35, 37, 38). The bacterial population in the large intestine
outnumbers that of the small intestine by about 100,000 to 1. That’s because
the small intestine is less hospitable to microbes: its environment is more
acidic and has a higher concentration of both digestive enzyme and
antimicrobial chemicals. In assition,
peristalsis is significantly faster in the small intestine. Different types of bacteria normally live in
the small and large intestines. The
predominant bacteria in the small intestine are benign species of Streptococcus and Enterococcus. Though they are are important in maintaining
a healthy microflora balance, like many microbes in the gut, they can cause
disease if found in high enough numbers in another location. In the large intestine, Bacteroides dominates. Probiotics can be found all along the small
and large intestines. Their presence is
a major force in maintaining a healthy balance among intestinal microbes. The
rectum collects wastes and expels them through the anus in the form of feces. Microbes don’t actually live in the rectum or
anus. However, they pass through in
large numbers. One-third of our feces
consists of bacteria. Though most of
these are harmless, come can make you sick.
That’s why it’s vitally important to take measures, from sewage
treatment to hand washing, to prevent dangerous expelled microbes from
reentering the mouth (Huffnagle ’07: 39, 40).
During
the past forty to fifty years, Americans have made two significant lifestyle
modications, greatly increasing the use of antibiotics and substantially
changing our diet. Together, these
changes have produced an invisible epidemic of insufficient probiotics. Antibiotics have the most profound impact on
a person’s microflora. Though these
drugs are an essential weapon against dangerous microbes, they kill the beneficial
ones too and antibiotics can’t kill viruses or the cells that contain
them. That’s why doctors try to
ascertain that an illness is bacterial rather than viral in origin before
prescribing antibiotics. A typical
two-week course of high-dose antibiotic treatment, as might be used for an ear
infection, can wipe our most of the normal gut microbes. After treatment, the microflora grows
back. But probiotic bacteria recover
more slowly than other microbes, especially if a person’s diet is high in refined
carbohydrates and low in prebiotics.
Unless the problem is corrected, the microbial balance after taking
antibotics will be different from what it was before, with likely lingering ill
effects on the immune system. In
addition to occasional medicinal doses of antibiotics, we’re exposed to them at
much lower levels in meat and drinking water.
Our diet is a major factor in regulating the balance among the various
microbes in our microflora. Bacteroides are the most numerous
bacterium in the gut. It typically
outnumbers E. coli by over a thousand
to one and outnumbers Candida by over
a million to one. Many companies offer
tests that analyze your gut flora. After
you pay for a test (typicaly several hundred dollars), you follow instructions
for obtaining a stool sample and mail it.
The company will culture the sample in the laboratory and then examine
the culture under a microscope. The
report they return usually includes an analysis of the types of bacteria and
yeasts the sample contained, plus warning about problems such as parasites and
imbalances. The best way to determine if
your microflora is balanced is to consider your overall state of health. If you’re fortunate enough to feel healthy,
energetic and in good spirits chances are your microflora and immune system are
in excellent shape. On the other hand if
you suffer chronic medical problems, there could be a gut-microbe
connection. Probiotics and prebiotics in
our diet are the best corrective force (Huffnagle ’07: 40, 41, 42, 44, 45).
Two
types of soluble fiber,- oligosaccharides and inulin – are particularly helpful
to probiotic bacteria. Oligosaccharides
are a form of soluble fiber found in vegetables. We can’t digst them, but probiotic microbes
can. One oligosaccharide, fructooligosaccharide
(FOS), is a particularly effective prebiotic.
And a form of FOS called short-chain fructo-oligosaccharide (scFOS) is
being considered as a possible sweetener in food, bcause it has a sweet taste. Inulin is another excellent prebviotic fiber.
It’s found in many vegetables, but the
major sources of inulin in the American diet are wheat, onions, and green
bananas. The microflora of breastfed and bottle-fed babies are different, which
may help explain the health advantages of breastfeeding. Some manufacturers have begun to add
probiotic bacteria to inant formula, and research suggests that babies
benefit. Another promising approach is
to add the following prebiotics: Oligosaccharides,
these soluble fibers are a negligible part of cow’s milk, but abundant in human
breast milk. GMP, the prebiotic peptide
is found in milk and milk curds, but not in whey. Infant formula is commonly whey-based, so it
usually lacks GMP. Alpha-lactalbumin,
between 20 and 25 percent of the protein in human milk is alph-lactalbumin; in
cow’s milk it’s only 2 to 5 percent.
Studies suggest that as a baby digests alpha-lactalbumin, beneficial
peptides form temporarily and act against harmful bacteria. This could help explain why breastfeeding
offers protection againt infection. When babies consume formula in which these
prebiotics are adjusted to match human breast milk, they develop a microflora
that’s high in Bifidobacerium and
otherwise similar to that of breastfed babies (Huffnagle ’07: 271, 281).
Antibiotics
are true miracle drugs. Since the advent
of antibiotic therapy, the mortality rate from infections has dropped
dramatically. Nonetheless, therapy is
successful only when diagnosis is made early.
Penicillin or ampicillin (Principen) are drugs of choice for meningococcal, H. Influenzae, streptococcus
and stephylcoccal infection. Bactrim (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) or
metronidazole (Flagyl ER) are usually selected for Escherichia choli, Bactrim however has numerous adverse
interactions with other drugs and is not proof against antibiotic associated
colitis caused by C. difficile
proliferation while metronidazole (Flagyl ER) is uniquely effective against
infectious gastroenteritis including C.
difficile and even minimizes the vitamin B12 deficiency that
causes post-infectious diarrhea in vegans – metronidazole is an antibiotic that
is highly effective in the gut and liver and also in the bones and joints. Metronidazole (Flagyl ER) should be taken to
avoid many unnecessary surgeries such as appendectomies, knee surgery
Gentamycin, carbenicillin and polymyxin B are best whenever Psumononas aeroginosa is
implicated. Doxycline (doxycycline), the
“once a day antibiotic” is generally effective for the treatment of Methicillin
resistant Stapholococcus Aureus (MRSA), Lyme disease and bubonic plague, but
unfortuneately causes the yellowing of developing permanent teeth in
children. Therapy depends on the
organism involved, specific antibiotics, which can be used for bacterial and
fungal infections are not supportive in viral disease. (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
167).
Penicillin
was developed first, just in time to treat soldiers during World War II. Late in the war, it became available to
civilians. Other antibiotics soon
followed. By 1950, antibiotic treatment
had become a routine part of medical care.
The impact on public health was extraordinary. Death due to bacterial diseases and
infections plummeted. Penicillin was
discovered in 1928 by Dr. Alexander Fleming, a British physician and researcher
who was known for being bright but untidy.
At the time, he was studying Staphylococcus,
bacteria that can cause food poisoning and infections. He returned from his summer vacation to find
neglected cultures that were contaminated by mold. But as he examined the ruined dishes of Staphylococcus, he noticed some thing
unexpected in the areas near the mold, bacterial growth was inhibited. The mold turned out to be a type of Penicillium, one of the molds that grow
on bread and other foods. Fleming
developed an extract of the mold and named it penicillin. Over the next few years, he conducted a
series of experiments with it. He
learned tha this penicillin extract could inhibit some harmful bacteria. Moreover, when he injected it into laboratory
animals, it caused no harmful symptoms.
Though Fleming published these promising initial findings, he couldn’t
produce enough penicillin to go further.
Doubting that his discovery had any practical value, he turned his
attention elsewhere. But several years
later, two Oxford University scientists Howard Florey and Ernest Chain, took up
the investigation. In 1940 Florey and
Chain injected eight mice with a dose of Streptococcus
bacteria that was sufficient to cause a lethal infection. An hour later, they injected four of the mice
with penicillin, the other were left untreated.
The results were dramatic, the next day, all of the untreated mice were
dead, but all that had received the penicillin were alive. Florey and Chain were eager to try penicillin
on humans. But people are about three
thousand times larger than mice, consequently their treamtnet requires much
larger quantities of a drug. Months of
labor were required to produce enough penicillin for just two patients. The first was a police constable who had
scratched himself on a rosebush. The
scratch, had become infected and the infection had spread to his eyes, scalp,
arms and lungs By the time he was
injected with penicillin, he was near death.
After only one day in which he received injections every three hours,
the constable’s condition had improved remarekeably, four days later, he seemed
almost cured. Since doctors expected him
to recover fully they used all the remaining penicillin to treat a second
patient. That patients survived, but the
constable suffered a relapse. Additional
penicillin probably would have saved him, but there was none. Tragically he died of his infection. Clearly, the potential for penicillin was
enormous. But it could not be realized
until large-scale production methods were developed. World War II had begun and Britain’s research
resources were limited. So Florey and
Chain turned to the U.S. government. In
previous wars, more soldiers had died from disease and infections than from
bullets and other weapons. Thus
penicillin had tremendous potential to save soliders’ lives and strengthen the
war effort. In 1943, the U.S. War
Production Board, established to maximize production of essential products,
took over responsibility for manufacturing penicillin. Thanks to a massive effort involving leading
drug manufacturers, penicillin production soared and countless lives were saved
on the battlefield. In 1945, Fleming,
Florey and Chain, shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine for the discovery of
penicillin. By the time the war ended,
penicillin producitno was sufficient for civilian use. The new drug became available in every
pharmacy in America. Many other
antibiotics followed, strating with streptomycin. By the 1960s these stunning successes led the
medical community to believe that the war against microbes and infections had
been won. However as the use of
antibotics spread, new epidemics began (Huffnagle ’07: 48, 49, 56,
At
his Nobel Lecture in 1945, Ian Fleming sounded an alrm about antibiotic
resistance. Here’s how he explained it:
The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant
man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal
quantities of the drug make them resistant.
Here is a hypothetical illustration.
Mr. X has a sore throat. He buys
some penicillin and gives himself, not enough to kill the Streptococci but enough to educate them to resist penicillin. He then infects his wife. Mrs. X gets pneumonia and is treated with
penicillin. As the Strepetococi are now resistant to penicillin the treatment
fails. Mrs. X dies. How is primarily responsible for Mrs. X’s
death? Why Mr. X whose negligent use of
penicillin changed the nature of the microbe. If antibiotic doses aren’t strong
enough to completely eliminate the infection-causing bacteria, the bacteria
have the opportunity to mutate. Some of
the mutants may survive, despite the antibiotic. As exposure to insufficient doses continuies,
these resistant strains proliferate while the original strain continues to
succumb. If a person becomes infected
with the mutant strain, the antibiotic is useless. We’ve managed to stay ahead of resistant
bacteria by developing new antibiotics or modifying old ones. Despite these effots, the prevalence of
antibiotic resistance continues to increase.
We’re exposed to antibiotic even if we never take them for an
illness. They are used extensively in
agriculture. Sometimes the purpose is to
treat infections in livestock. But far
more common is the routine practice of giving small daily doses to uninfected
animals in their feed. Low doses of
antibiotics improve the general health of livestock, increase reproduction, and
reduce the death rate. Adding
antibiotics can increase the weight of an animal by 15 percent. For example, a pig that would normally reach
200 pounds on a given amount of feed gains 30 extra pounds without consuming
any more. While it’s economically
advantageous to increase feed efficiency in livestock, there are also
disturbing drawbacks to using antibiotics this way. To prevent antibiotic resistance, it’s
important to use these powerful drugs only when necessary to treat a bacterial
infection. Antibiotic prescriptions are
not indicated for the common cold or flu, which are viral in orgin. According to a study published in the Journal
of the American Medical Association, office-based doctors wrote 40 percent
fewer prescriptions for antibiotics for children and adolescents in 1999 to
2000 than they had ten years earlier. It
is important to complete antibiotic treatment, even if symptoms are gone. Resistance can occur when antibiotics are not
kept at high enough levels in the body for sufficiently long. That’s why doctors prescribe treatment over a
period of days. Unfortunately, some people
stop taking antibiotics as soon as their symptoms disappear. But an apparent return to health doesn’t mean
that the disease-causing bacteria have been eradicated. (Huffnagle ’07: 53, 54, 55).
Epidemiologists
tracking health trends proclaimed the triumph of antibiotics as death from
infectious disease fell in the 1950s and 1960s.
But by the mid-1990s, they had confirmed a rise in two chronic
conditions – allergies and asthma.
According to a landmark CDC study, asthma rates in the United States increased
over 80 percent from 1980 to 1995, the largest increase was reported for
children ages 0 to 4, a whopping 160 percent.
Subsequent reports confirmed these high rates. The asthma problem is not limited to the
United States. In Canada, the United Kingdm,
Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, the incidence of asthma is 10 to 50
percent higher than in the U.S. Several epidemiological studies identified a
correlation between early antibiotic use in children and the later development
of allergies and asthma. Antibiotics are
indeed wonder drugs, essential to combat disease. But like any other medication, they have
unintended side effects. Some of these
side effects are temporary and relatively minor (for example yeast infection),
others last longer and are of greater concern, such as diarrhea due to Clostridium dificile overgrowth. But most significant of all are effects on
the immune system, which are far more serious and may last for a lifetime. Fortuneately, we’re discovering that most, if
not all, antibiotics side-effects can be prevented by consuming probiotics and
prebiotics both during and after treatment.
In 2000 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the
Animal Health Institute estimated that 50 million pounds of antibiotics were
produced annually in the United States.
Of that 18 million pounds, 36 percent were used in agriculture. In 2001, a study appeared in the New England
Journal of Medicine reporting that antibiotic-resistant bacteria had been found
in supermarket samples of ground chicken, beef, turkey, and pork. Two additional studies found
antibiotic-resistant bacteria in chicken and pork. Meanwhile, European scientists were finding
high levels of antibiotics in streams and drinking water. They traced this discovery to the use of
antibiotics in agriculture. These
findings have prompted leading infectious disease specialists to urge a ban on
routine use of low-dose antiobtics simply to aid animal growth. They argue that public health could be
compromised if the practice leads to new disease-causing bacteria that no
existing antibiotic can treat. Sweden
adopted such a ban in 1986, Denmark followed in 2000. The entire European Union agreed to bn the
routine use of antibiotics in animal feed starting in 2006. Individual companies have cut or eliminated
use of antibiotics to promote animal growth.
For example, in 2005 McDonald’s announced that their poultry suppliers
worldwide could no longer promote growth with antibiotics used in human
medicine. Several leading American
chicken growers have almost completely ended antibiotic use. And the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is
considering new regulations to reduce antibiotic use in livestock feed
(Huffnagle ’07: 48, 49, 58, 59, 56, 57).
Antibiotics
kill bacteria in different ways. For
instance, penicillin disrupts the building of cell walls of certain
bacteria Without a cell wall bacteria
break open and die. Tectracycline
interferes with the ability of certain bacteria to produce protein, they need
to grow. Other antibiotics work via different mechanisms. Each antibiotic
affects some bacteria but not others.
The penicillin originally isolated by Alexander Fleming was highly
effective against Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, but not against E. coli. However, metronidazole (Flagyl
ER) and Bactrim (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) are. When you take an antibiotic, some bacteria,
plus all yeasts, are left unharmed. With
their competition out of the way, they thrive.
This selective slaughter changes the microflora balance, explaining such
common side effets of antibiotics as the following. Diarrhea, due to overgrowth
of Clostridium difficile, which
resists most antibiotics, except for metronidazole (Flagyl ER), which is the
only antibiotic useful in cases of colitis.
Vaginal yeast infections in women, caused by Candida albicans, whose proliferation is normally prevented by Lactobacillus, a probiotic that’s
vulnerable to many antibiotics. Oral
thrush, a disease caused when Candida infects
the mucous membranes of the mouth. Candida growth normally is controlled in
the mouth by a combination of oral bacteria and the immune system. If antibiotic treatment destroys the oral
bacteria, the immune system alone cannot control growth of this yeast. Within a week after antibiotics ends, the
microflora partly recovers its normal balance.
In most cases, the side effects go away.
What’s not obvious, though, is that the microflora balance remains disrupted. Some types of bacteria will be partly or
completely wiped out by a course of antibiotics. Over time, they’ll be reintroduced into our
bodies as we breathe, eat, drink, and otherwise expose ourselves to the
world. However, the decimated
populations may be slow to return to their previous levels, because the
bacteria are now relatively few in number and must compete for nutrients with
other bacteria that survived antibiotic treatment more successfully. The microflora balance is also affected by
proliferation of bacteria and yeasts that weren’t affected by the
antibiotic. Their hgher than-normal
populations usually diminish slowly as their natural competitors recover,
though their numbers may remain elevated.
Probiotics are easily killed by antibiotics, and their recoveyr is quite
variable. As a result, the
post-antibiotic microflora is likely to be deficient in probiotics. That’s why eating foods and supplements that
contain probiotics is important both during and after antibiotic
treatment. Recovery is also boosted by
consuming foods high in prebiotics, compounds that promote probiotic
growth. Conversely, a poor diet, such as
one high in sugar, can impede restoration of probiotics in the gut (Huffnagle
’07: 50, 51, 52).
Helping
Medication and Probiotics Work Together
|
Type of Drug |
What’s the Issue |
What to Do |
|
Antibiotic |
Kills probiotic bacteria, such as
Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium,
as well as targeted bacteria. Not:
probiotic yeasts, such as Saccharamuces
boulardii, are not affected by antibiotics |
Consume probiotic bacteria at
least two hours after taking antibiotics.
A probiotic yeast can be taken at the same time as antibiotics. |
|
Systemic oral antifungal
medications (e.g. fluconazole, nystatin) |
Kills
probiotic yeast, such as Saccharomyces
boulardii, as well as harmful yeasts.
Note: probiotic bacteria, such as Lactobacillus
and Bifidobacterium are not
affected by antifungal medications. |
Take probiotic yeast at least two
hours after taking antifungal drugs.
Probiotic bacteria can be consumed at the same tiem as antifungals. |
|
Antacids and acid blockers, such
as Tagamet |
Counters desirable presence of
acid in the stomach and the beginning of the small intestine, acid controls
growth of harmful bacteria, creating a selective advantage for probiotic
bacteria. |
If you must take these
medications, increase the dose or frequency of probiotics. Gradually work up to double the usual
amount of probiotic for as long as the medication is needed. |
|
Nonsteroidal anti-inflamatory
drugs, such as aspirin |
Can block production of stomach
acid, this acid normally gives probiotic bacteria a competitive advantage. |
“ |
|
Laxatives and any drug that lists
diarrhea as a side effect |
Speeds emptying of intestinal
contants, including probiotic bacteria. |
“ |
|
Muscle relaxants or any drug that
lists constipation as a side effect |
Decreasess peristalsis, which
slows emptying of intestinal contanets, allowing competing bavteria to
proliferate. |
“ |
Source: Huffnagle ’07: 326
Aging
has the potential to tip our microfloral balance away from probiotics, and
consequently the balance of regulatory versus helper T cells. As a result, the immune system will regulate
itself less effectively, leading to increased inflammation in the body. Research suggests that probiotics can help
counter the physicially damaging effects of stress, including effects on the
gut and immune system. In a study of 68
infants whose bouts of crying lasted for three or more hours daily, three or
more days per week, over a period of more than than three weeks. Half of the babies received drops containg
the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri,
the rest received simethicone, the standard treatment for cholic. After four week s the conventionally treated
infants were still crying for an average of 2 hours and 27 minutes per day and
those who received L. reuteri drops were down to an average of just 17 minutes
of crying per day, which is well within the range of normal. Over the years, the composition of our gut
microflora changes. In midlife there is
a decrease in the members of the probiotic Bifidobacterium
genus and an increase in E. coli and Clostridia. E. coli
can perform useful functions in the gut, they halp compete against harmful
microbes, they make certain vitamins that we absorb. On the other hand, if they leave the GI
tract, they can cause disease. Many
species of Clostridia are bad
news. If their numbers get out of hand,
they can cause serious illnesses.
Members of the Clostridium
genus are responsible for tetanus, botulism, and gangrene, as well as
antibiotic-associated colitis.
Constipation, diarrhea, and heartburn are common side effects of
medication. Age-related changes in the
microflora make us more susceptible to Clostridium
difficule, which causes diarrhea.
This bacterium is normally present in our GI tract, but its numbers are
kep in check by friendly bacteria.
Probiotics such as Lactobacillus
rhamnosus GG and Saccharomyces
boulardii Iyo have proven very
effective at treating diarrhea caused by C.
difficile. As women go through
menopause, their vaginal microflora changes.
The population of E. coli
increases, while the probiotic Lactobacilli
decline and women become more vulnerable to vaginal infections after
menopause (Huffnagle ’07: 94, 102, 104, 105).
Unlike
antibiotics, the supplements have no adverse side effects. If probiotics work, they can be continued for
as long as necessary. And since
probiotic foods and supplements are safe, there’s no need to wait for conclusive
scientific evidence. Every time we eat
we tinker with our microbial balance.
Depending on the foods we select, we provide certain microbes with
nutrients while making others go hungry.
Prebiotics offer a cornucopia of healthy, delectable options. The chief sources are fruits, vegetabls and
whole grains. Prebiotics are also found
in certain fats, herbs and spices, red wine and dark chocolate. Dietary fiber ithe best-known prebiotic. Our body can’t digest fiber and turn it into
fuel. But probiotic microbes thrive on
it. Fiber is a form of carbohydrate,
just like sugar and starch. But the
human body doesn’t produce enzymes that can break it down. When we consume foods containing fiber, the
fiber passes right through our digestive tract.
It provides us with no calories, vitamins or minerals. However, that doesn’t mean it’s useless. Along the way, fiber performs extremely
valuable functions. One of the most
important is that it serves as prebiotic, selectively supporting probiotic
microbes in our gut. Fiber takes many
different forms, but all of them can be grouped into two general categories –
insoluble and soluble – depending on what happens when they’re mied with
water. Insoluble fiber acts like a
sponge: it holds water but doesn’t dissolve.
Soluble fiber heaves like a powder, absorbing water and forming a
gel. Most plant foods contain both kinds
of fiber, though one or the other may predominate, and both types are important
or health. However, only soluble fiber
acts as a prebiotics. Insoluble fiber is
sometimes called roughage, because it’s coars and bulky – characteristics that
make important contributions to digestion and good health. Insoluble fiber stimulates the intestines,
helping food move through them, preventing not only constipation, but also
conditions caused by straining and pressure in the colon, such as hemorrhoids,
and diverticulosis (a disorder in which infection-prone pouches form on the
intestinal wall). When soluble fiber
absorbes water, it forms a sticky gel.
This turns out to be useful for appetite control. When you eat something that contains both
suar and soluble fiber, say an apple, its soluble fiber slows the release of
its sugar. Take away the fiber, as with
clear apple juice and sugar enters the blood more rapidly Both types of fiber offer bulk that lets you
satisy your appetite with fewer calories.
Soluble fiber also heps lower blood cholesterol levels. The sticky gel absorbs cholesterol and bile
acids in the intestines. Bile acids are
essential for disting fats, they’re made from cholesterol by the liver. Normally, any exess is reabsorbed by the body
and recycled. But when bile acids are
absorbed by soluble fiber, they get removed from the body as wastes. This forces the liver to produce more, which uses
up cholesterol (Huffnagle ’07: 202, 270).
Food
historians speculate that yogurt was first made accidentally, when milk was
left inside goatskin bags and fermented by wild bacteria. These days, yogurts are commercially
manufactured by a process that’s considerably less spontaneous. The milk, which can come form any
milk-producing animal, is first pasteurized (ie. Heated sufficiently to kill
any harmful bacteria- and then bacterial cultures are added to ferment it. According to FDA regulations, products sold
as yogurt in the United States must be fermented with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophiles, referred to as yogurt starters. The starter bacteria digest lactose (milk
sugar) and other carbohydrates int eh milk, producing lactic acid and other
acids that give yogurt its characteristic tart taste. The acids also react chemically with milk
proteins, causing the milk to thicken.
In addition, since harmful bacteria can’t grow in an acidic environment,
the acids protect the milk from contamination.
On top of these useful effects are all the health benfits from probiotic
bacteria and from metabiotics, the metabolic products that probiotic bacteria
produce. Yogurt also contains
lactoferrin, a prebiotic found in milk.
After fermentation, fruit, jam, or other flavorings may be added or
blended into the yogurt. Some
manufacturers add fiber, which boosts the reviotic content. The best way to ensure that you’re buying
yogurt that contains probiotics is to select a product with the “live and
active cultures” seal from the National Yogurt Association (NYA). This indicates that the yogurt contains 100
million viable bacteria per gram at the time of manufacture, the equivalent of
more than 20 billion per 8 ounce serving.
Some yogurts with live bacteria don’t carry the NYA seal, instead their
lavels may read “contains active yogurt cultures” or “contains living yogurt
cultures”. But avoid yogurts that simply
sya “made with active cultures”. Such a
yogurt may have been heat-treated after fermentation, in which case the
bacteria would no longer by alive. All
uyogurts with live bacteria contain the straters Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermohilus. However, some
manfuactuerers add other bacteria to their yogurts, including the probiotics L. acidophilus, Bifidobacterium animalis, L.
casie, L. reuteri, and others. Check
the label All foods fermented by probiotic bacteria contain metabiotics – even
foods that have been heated after fermentation, so that the bacteria themselves
are no longer alive. Bacteriocins are
natural antibiotics that bacteria make to help themselves survive. These antibiotics aren’t harmful to the
bacteria that make them, but they kill or inhibit other bacteria. The bacteriocins produced by probiotic
bacteria help shift the microbial balance in their own favbor. Fermented foods, such as yogurt, cheese,
sourdough bread, and sauerkraut, contain bacteriocins, thanks to the lactic
acid bacteria in them (Huffnagle ’07: 210, 211).
Health
Benefits of 13 Highly Studied Probiotic Strains
|
Genus |
Species |
Strain |
Health Benefits |
|
Bifidobacterium |
animalis |
DN-173 010, (1) |
General health, GI health |
|
Bifidobacterium |
lactis |
Bb-12 |
General health, GI health, viral
diarrhea, eczema |
|
Bifidobacterium |
lactis |
HN019, DR10 |
General health,
GI health, viral diarrhea |
|
Lactobacillus |
acidophillus |
NCFM |
General health, GI health, viral
diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus |
casei |
DN-114 001, (2) |
General health, GI health,
irritable bowel suyndrom, viral diarrhea |
|
Lactobacillus |
casei |
Shirota |
General healtg, GI health,
inflammatory bowel disease, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, allergy,
autoimmunity |
|
Lactobacillus |
fermentum
|
RF-14 |
General health, vaginal yeast
infection, urinary tract infection |
|
Lactobacillus |
plantarum |
299v |
General health, GI health, viral
diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus |
reuteri |
SD2112, ING1, MM53, ATCC 55739,
(3) |
General health,
GI health, viral diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus |
rhamnosus |
GG, LGG, (4) |
General health, GI health, inflammatory bowel
disease, irritable bowel syndrome, viral diarrhea, antibiotic-associated
colitis, C. difficile diarrhea, travelers’ diarrhea, eczema, autoimmunity |
|
Lactobacillus |
rhamnosus |
GR-1 |
General health, vaginal yeast
infection, urinary tract infection |
|
Lactobacillus |
rhamnosus |
HN001, DR20 |
General health, GI health |
|
Saccharomyces |
boulardii |
Iyo |
General health, GI health,
inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, Viral diarrhea,
Antibiotic-associated diarrhea, C .difficile diarrhea, Traveler’s diarrhea |
Source: Huffnagle ’07: 263
A growing number of Americans are avoiding
dairy products to guard their hearts against dairy industry funded nutritional
propaganda from the 1960s and 70s to drink a glass of milk a day for strong
bones and teeth although current research indicates that milk is harmful to
bones and cariogenic to teeth . Yet
since the 1950s US dairy farmers have produced more milk than can be sold on
the market, Monsanto developed affordable recombinant Boving Growth Hormone
(rBGH), brand name Posilac which contaminates as much as 90 percent of milk
products, not labeled organic or rBGH free.
Milk
from cows that have been injected with Monsantos genetically engineered rBGH
contains 2 to 10 times as much IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor) as normal
cow’s milk. This pushed prostate cancer
risk for men over 60 years of age with high IGF-1 8 times greater than men with
low levels, and the risk of pre-menopausal breast cancer was 7 times
greater. IGF-1 is not destroyed in
pasteurization. Cows treated with rBGH
have a 25 percent increase in udder infections (mastitis) and a 50 percent
increase in lameness. To counter the
health problems among cows injected with rBGH more antibiotics are used. American consumers overwhelmingly support the
labeling of milk products produced with rBGH.
But the FDA has said such labeling would unfairly stigmatize rBGH milk
as less healthy. Because as much as 90
percent of milk products, not labeled organic or rBGH-free, contain rBGH. Although lactose intolerance is estimated at 10 percent amongst people
of Caucasian descent, it is much higher in other races, 90-100 percent in
Asians, 65-70 percent in Africans, 65-70 percent in Italians, and 50-60 percent
in Hispanics. Countries with the
highest levels of dairy products have the highest levels of osteoporosis –
Finland, Sweden, United States and England.
The hip fracture rate for African-Americans, who consume more than 1,000
mg of calcium a day, compared with black South Africans is 9 times
greater. Calcium intake in rural China
is one-half that of people in the US but the bone fracture rate is one-fifth of
that in the US. There are no
antibiotics in soy milk. Soy milk is
cholesterol-free, while cow’s milk contains 34 mg of cholesterol per cup. 44 percent of children with chronic
constipation so intractable that it can’t be treated successfully by laxatives,
are cured by switching from cow’s milk to soy milk. While the average American estimates that 1
percent of the world population does not drink milk the actual number is 65
percent (Robbins ’01: 335, 336, 99, 343, 104, 107). It is therefore recommended to try the new Lactobacillus spp. fruit juice beverages
and buy Probiotic Defense capsules.
IV.
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive
drugs act on the central nervous system.
They can divided into three broad categories: stimulants, which excite
and enhance psychomotor activity, hallucinogens, which are capable of inducing
a dreamlike state as well as hallucinations, and depressants, which reduce
mental and physical performance.
Cocaine, coffee and tea are well-known stimulants; peyote, certain
mushrooms morning glory seeds and marihuana are frequently used hallucinogens;
and alcohol and tranquilizers are the best known examples of depressants. Nicotine obtained from smoking, chewing, and
sniffing tobacco may act as a depressant, but it serves usually as a stimulant. Two of the most powerful natural stimulants
are coca, native to the Andes; the other is chat, which is commonly used in
eastern Ethiopia. An extract of coca
well-known as cocaine, has been available since the nineteenth century, but
then only for medicinal purposes and to the very few who could afford it, for
pleasure. In contrast to these powerful
stimulants there are many mildly stimulating beverages, like tea and coffee, as
well as numerous tonics and panaceas purportedly giving the same effect. In 1932 benzedrine was introduced
commercially, and this and other amphetamines were widely used beginning with
World War II. The Germans employed
amphetamines to enhance and extend performance of their paratroopers and other
forces in 1938 and, as the war progressed, both sides were dispensing “pep
pills” to their troops. At the end of
the war the Japanese dumped their surplus stock on the open market with the
slogan “elimination of drowsiness and repletion of the spirit”. After a devastating war, amphetamines were
exactly what the people wanted to counter feelings of frustration and loss of
confidence. Within a few years Japan was
in the midst of the first central nervous system stimulant epidemic known to
man. Chronic amphetamine abusers were
everywhere. By 1951 arrests for illegal
use totaled 17,529 by 1955 55,664 but by 1958 the epidemic was brought to an
abrupt end following stern governmental measures against the illegal
manufacture and sale of the drugs (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 377, 380).
Erythroxylum coca
(Erythroxylaceae) was considered the property of the Incan royal family, to be
dispensed as desired to confer a sense of exalted well-being and freedom from
fatigue and hunger. The Spanish soon
learned of coca’s powers from the Incas and for economic reasons the distribution
of leaves became widespread among the Indian workers. Today 15 million chew quids mixed with a
little alkali for intensified effects. A
handful of leaves chewed daily, with fresh ones added to the quid every hour or
so, gives sustained energy and the will to work hard even under the most deplorable
conditions. Cocaine was popularized in
Europe during the latter half of the nineteenth century to counteract the
effects of morphine and depression.
Thousands routinely purchased Mariani’s Coca Wine from France and
Coca-Cola in North America. Coca-cola
contained cocaine until 1904, when use of this ingredient was prohibited. Various tonics and other patent medicine also
included cocaine for treating catarrh.
The drug has the effect of reducing mucous membrane swelling. Cocaine was found to possess local anesthetic
properties and was widely used in eye surgery and in dentistry. A search for synthetic drugs not having
stimulatory effects on the central nervous system was rewarded with the
discovery of procaine (Novocaine) and Xylocaine. To maintain exhilaration, cocaine must be
injected every 5 to 15 minutes whereas amphetamines are injected every 2 to 4
hours. The leaves of Catha edulis (Celastraceae) native from
Arabia through eastern Africa to the Cape of South Africa, is the source of chat,
and has been used for centuries as a central nervous system stimulant by Moslem
peoples and by the Copts of Ethiopia.
The use of chat is now spreading, as east Africans and others learn of
the exhilarating properties of this “flower of paradise”. Leaves and/or branchlets of chat are chewed
for about 10 minutes as a quid until all juices are extracted. The residue is then swallowed, along with
copius amounts of water, or preferably sweet soda, to counter the bitter taste
of the plant. The effects are euphoria,
increased alertness, general excitement and hyperactivity, accompanied by
relief from hunger and fatigue. A
constant mild high for those who chew throughout the day. Undesirable effects, besides irritability,
include dry mouth and thirst, and decrease in appetite and disturbed digestion
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 381-382).
Following
the exploration of Columbus and other Europeans, many foreign mind-affecting
drugs were brought home. Tobacco was
discovered on Columbus’ first voyage, coffee arrived from the Moslem world and
coffeehouses first appeared in England in the mid-seventeenth century, and soon
afterward tea from China and cocoa from tropical America complete the trilogy
of caffeine containing drinks. Caffeine
is xanthine alkaloid common to the stimulatory beverages coffee, tea, cocoa or
chocolate, and soft (cola) drinks.
Coffee is made from the ground roasted seeds of Coffea arabica native to Ethiopia and long cultivated in parts of
the Arab world as a beverage and medicine, it contains on the average 1%
caffeine and is the widely cultivated species.
In the United States 68% of those over 10 years of age drink
coffee. In 1969 2.8 billion pounds were
consumed 150 billion cups of coffee.
Most coffee drinkers enjoy two cups in the morning (about 300 mg
caffeine). Without it, users become
irritable, nervous and restless, they are unable to work and often develop
headaches. Recent reports suggest that
heavy coffee drinkers have a higher incidence of myocardial infarctions that
those who do not use coffee. Tea from Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) of Oriental
origin, spread into Europe on the heels of coffee during the seventeenth
century. The most popular form of tea in
the West is black tea prepared by drying, rolling and crushing fresh young
leaves, which are then kept in a damp area to promote the absorption of oxygen. Oxidation turns the leaves a copper color. Green teas (without oxidation) are also
available and are especially enjoyed in the Orient. The active ingredient of cocoa or chocolate
from the seeds of Theobroma cacao
(Sterculiaceae) a small tree of American origin widely cultivated in western Africa,
is theobromine, a xanthine alkaloid. Up
to 3% of this alkaloid is present along with minute quantities of caffeine and
large amounts of cacoa butter in the kernel of the seed which is ground after
fermentation. The cola soft drinks
contain caffeine (30-45 mg per 12 oz bottle) obtained from seeds of western
African species of Cola
(Sterculiaceae) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 384, 385).
Consumers
of tobacco and nicotine soon learn that after smoking a while they have to
continue day after day, or an insatiable craving develops that only tobacco
whether smoked, chewed or sniffed, could satisfy. Tobacco was considered therapeutic in 1597
for dozens of infirmities from headaches, toothaches, skin problems, burns,
wounds, dropsy, piles, colic and deafness besides acting as a purgative, emetic
and anthelmintic. Tobacco leaves contain
0.6% to 9% nicotine as well as lesser amount of nornicotine and an aromatic
principle known as tobacco camphor.
Roots of Nicotiana tabacum
(Solanaceae) contain the additional pyridine alkaloids anabasine and
anatabine. Only one other species is
widely cultivated today, N. rustica. The typical filter cigarette contains 20 to
30 mg of nicotine of which 10% is absorbed by inhalation. Nicotine appears to act in the central
nervous sytem at the level of the cortex by increasing arousal. Its effects on the autonomic nervous system,
where it mimics acetylcholine, thereby stimulating neurotransmission at the
cholinergic receptors. Since nicotine is
not rapidly deactivated, its continued action prevents incoming impulses from
being effective, thus partially blocking the transmission of new
information. It also activates
adrenergic response by causing the release of adrenaline form the adrenal
glands and the sympathetic nervous system.
In acute nicotine poisoning, tremors and convulsions develop and
frequently the individual dies of respiratory paralysis. Nicotine when inhaled inhibits hunger
contractions of the stomach and slightly increases blood sugar levels. It is far easier to become dependent on
cigarettes than on alcohol or barbiturates.
Occasional use is rare and is found in only about 2% of smokers. Usually a continuous supply is necessary and
most smokers are not aware of the addicting nature of nicotine until the supply
is cut off. Limited tolerance is quickly
acquired to nicotine although it may take several years before the smoker
becomes tolerant of high nicotine intake. Tobacco and tobacco substitutes and
flavorings from around the world are Anarcardiaceae, Rhus glabra, R. triloba
(Sumac), R. sempervirens, R. virens, Apiaceae, Angelica archangelica (Angelica), A. atropurpurea (Purple angelica), coriandrum sativum (Coriander),
Asteraceae, Matricaria chamomilla
(Chamomile), Trilisa odoratissuma
(Deer’s tongue, Betulaceae, Corylus
avellanda (Euroepan hazel), Boraginaceae, Tournefortia argentea, Campanulaceae, Lobelia excels, L. inflate
(Indian tobacco), L. tupa (Tobacco
del Diablo), Cornaceae, Cornus
stolonifera (Red-osier dogwood), Daphniphyllaceae, Daphniphyllum humile, Ericaceae,
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry), Euphorbiaceae, Sauropus quadrangularis, Fabaceae, Dipteryx odorata (Tonka tree), Lamiaceae, Mentha arvensis (Mint), Moraceae, dorstenia contrajerva, Myristicaceae, Myristica fragrans (nutmeg and mace), Poaceae, Zea mays (Corn), Rosaceae, Crataegus
oxyacantha (Hawthorn), Prunus
spp., Scrophulariaceae, Verbascum Thapsus
(mullein), Solanaceae, Datura fastuosa,
D. metel (Hindu datura), D.
stramonium (Jimson weed), Nicotiana
tabacum (Common tobacco), N. alata,
N. attenuate, N. glauca (Tree
tobacco), N. quadrivalvis, N. rustica (Aztec tobacco, yellow
henbane), N. trigonophylla, Solanum inaequilaterale, Tiliaceae, Tilia cordata (Linden) (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
392-395).
The
meteoric rise in the popularity of cigarette smoking in the twentieth century
was stimulated by several factors: improved flax wrapping paper (made from the
fiber of Linum usitatissimum)
automatic manufacturing machinery (which lowered the price) and intense
advertising campaigns. Ultimately
concern developed for those inhaling hourly doses of the drug. Data indicating deleterious effects began to
accumulate in the 1950s, and the Report of the Surgeon General’s Advisory
Committee on Smoking and Health of 1964 convinced most people that cigarettes
are injurious to health. It was stated
that cigarette moking shortens life, causes lung and other kinds of cancer,
exacerbates heart disease, emphysema, bronchitis, and other illnesses and
greatly increase the risk of dying of these causes. For example, the coronary death rate among
smokers is 1.5 to 2 times as great as among nonsmokers, and for a man aged 45
to 54, who smokes a pack or ore of cigarettes as day, the rate is 3 times as
high. Hazards to the unborn were also
revealed, not only were babies born to women who smoked during pregnancy
lighter on the average than those of nonsmokers, but more were premature and
they were twice as likely as babies of nonsmoking mothers to be aborted,
stillborn or to die soon after birth.
The increased level of carbon monoxide in closed areas where smokers are
is often sufficiently great to impair skills required for driving, flying or
other activities. Tars also increase in such areas to a level considered unsafe. The smoker is harming not only himself but
also the nonsmokers in his immediate environment. By 1970 the consumption of cigarettes in the
United States had fall fro an all-time high of 4345 (annual per capita
consumption over 18 years old) in 1963 to 3985.
During this time an estimated 10 million smokers had given up
cigarettes, and by 1970 the population’s smokers 17 years old and over totaled
36.7%. In addition, there was a decided
reduction in the tar content of cigarettes, with 90% of all cigarettes falling
between 14 and 29 mg in 1972, compared to a 1954 tar content of 95% of
cigarettes between 35 and 53 mg. Lower
tar and nicotine levels are important.
Equally important is a serious effort to prevent young people from
beginning to smoke. The only known cure
for smoking is abrupt stopping and suffering the distress of withdrawal. Some relief may be found in chewing gum or
sucking candy or in resorting to commercial preparations containing lobeline,
the alkaloid allied to nicotine, from Lobelia
inflate. Perhaps the most effective
control is provided by the full awareness that smoking is harmful and by firm
resolution, perhaps enforced by a group therapy, to overcome this undesirable
habit (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 391-395)
Hallucinogens
are unique compounds. In nontoxic doses
they produce changes in perception, thought, and m, without causing major
disturbances of the autonomic nervous system.
Association and withdrawal symptoms are unknown. These drugs are a means of escaping from
reality as it is commonly understood.
Most hallucinogens are of plant origin.
They do not however, occur at random throughout the plant kingdom, but
rather are dispersed among two groups only, the fungi and more commonly, the
flowering plants: Fungi: Ascomycetes, Claviepitales, Claviceps purpurea (Ergot), Fungi Bsidiomycetes, Lycoperdales, Lycoperdon marginatum, L. mixtecorum (Puffballs), Agaricales
(Mushrooms) Amanita muscaria (Fly
agaric), Conocybe cyanopus, C.
siligioides, Gymnopilus spectabalis,
Panaeolus sphinctrinus, P. subbaltatus,
Psilocybe acutissima, P. aztecorum, P. baesystis, P. caerulescens, P.
cordispora, P. fagicola, P. hoogshagenii, P. isauri, P. Mexicana, P.
mixaeensis, P. semperviva, P. wassonii, P. ungensis, P. zapotecorum, Stropharia cubensis, Angiosperms,
Phylogenetic Group 1 Annonales, Himantantdraceae, Galbulimima belgraviana, Myristicaceae, Myristica fragrans (Nutmeg and mace), Virola claophylla (Yakee and yato), V. calophylloidea (Colombia, parica), V. cuspidate (epena and nyak), V.
elongate (wana), V. peruviana, V.
punctate, V. rurula, V. sebifera, V. ehidora, Gomortegaceae, Gomortega keule, Lauraceae, Sassafras albidum (Sassafras),
Piperaceae, Piper methysticum (Kava),
P. nigrum (Pepper), Berberidales,
Papaveraceae, Corydalis cava,
Phylogenetic Group 3 Chemopodiales, Aizoaceae, Sceletium (Mesembryanthemum) expansum (Tropanelike alkaloid:
mesebrine) S. tortuosum, Xactaceae, Ariocarpus retusus, Epithelantha micromeris, Lophophora
williamsii diffusa (Peyote), Pachycereus
pectenaboriginum (Cawe), Trichocereus
pachanoi (San Pedro), T. tershekii,
Phylogenetic Group 4 Ericales, Ericaceae, Pernettya
furens (Hush-hued or hierba loca, Chile), P. parvifolia (Taglli Ecuador), Phylogenetic Group 6 Urticales,
Moraceae, Maquira (Olmedioperebea)
sclerophylla (Rape dos Indios Portuguese), Cannabaceae, Cannabis sativa, C. indica, C. ruderalis (Hemp,
marihuana, hashish, bhang), Euphorbiales, Euphorbiaceae, Alchomea floribunda, Phylogenetic Group 7, Rosales, Fabaceae, Anadenanthera (piptadenia) peregrine
(Cohoba, yopo), A. clubrina, Cytisus (Genista) canariensis, Erythrina spp. (Coral bean), Mimosa hostilis (Ajuca or vinhoe de
Jurema, eastern Brazil), Rhunchosia
longeracemosa, R pyramidalis, Phylogenetic Group 8 Myrtales, Lythraceae, Heimia salicifolia (Sinicuichi),
Phylogenetic Group 9, Geraniales, Zygophyllaceae, Peganum harmala (Syrian rue), Polygalales, Malpighiaceae, Banisteriopsis caapi (Ayahuasca), B. inebrians (caapi, yaje, or cipo,
Brazil), B. rusbyana, Terapteris methystica, Phylogenetic
Group 11, Genianales, Loganiaceae, Desfontainia
spinosa var. hookeri (Taique), Rubiaceae, Corynanthe yohimbe, Mitragyna
speciosa, Pscyotria catharginensis,
P. viridis. Apcynaceae, Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, Prestonia amazonica, Tabermanthe iboga (Iboga), Bignoniales,
Acanthaceae, Justicia pectoralis var.
stenophylla, Solanales, Solanaceae, Atropa
belladonna, Brunfelsia spp., Cestrum laevigatum, C. parqui (Dama da noite), Datura
spp., Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane), H. muticus, Lochroma fuchsioides, Latua
pubiflora (Arbol de los brujos), Mandragora
officinarum (Mandrake), Methysticodendron
amesianum (Cubbra borrachera), Convolvulaceae, Argyreia nervosa (Wood rose), Ipomoea
violacea (Morning glory), Lamiales, Lamiaceae, Coleus blumei, C. pumilus,
Lagochilus inebrians, Nepeta cataria (Catnip), Salvia divinorum (Yerba de Maria),
Campanulales, Campanulaceae, Isotoma
longiflora, Lobelia tupa (Tupa),
Asterales, Asteraceae, Cale zacatechichi
(Leaf of God), Phylogenetic Group 13, Arales, Araceae, Acorus calamus (Sweet flag), Homalomena
spp. (Ereriba), Phylogenetic Group 14, Zingiberales, Zingiberaceae, Kaempferia galangal (Galanga), Zingiber officinale (ginger),
Phylogenetic Group 15, Liliales, Liliaceae, Pancratium
trianthum (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 398- 404).
The use of
hallucinogens has deep traditional roots among the indigenous populations. The compounds responsible for hallucinations
are composed of very few chemical types.
Most are alkaloid nitrogen-containing compo unds. A number of cactus speices possess
psychoactive properties, none is more significant than peyote, Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae). Known as peyotl in the Aztec Empire this
cactus, native from southern Texas to central Mexico, was one of the earliest
North American hallucinogens to be firmly established in religious rigts before
the Spanish conquest. The peyote cult
withstood centuries of civil and ecclesiastical opposition, and today in the
Unitedm, States, Mexico and Canada use of the plant as part of the Indian
religious experience is legally incorporated into the services of the Native
American Church, whose adherents number about a quarter million. Peyote is usually eaten as mescal buttons,
the dried, brown pieces of the above ground part of the cactus. Occasionally fresh green pieces are
used. Not long after ingestion, peyote
produces causea, chills, and vomiting often accompanied by terror, anxiety, and
a dislocation of visual perspective, in the majority of users. After these unpleasant symptoms subsdide,
menhtal stimulation begins. There is a
clarity and intensity of thought, but most characteristic of all is the motion
of indescribably brilliant colored visions, as well as exaggerated sensitivity
to sounds and other sense impressions. Trichocereus pachanoi (San Pedro) of
Peru is a hallucinogenic cactus used in folk healing. Many hallucinogenic
alkaloids are tryptamine derivates of these, psilocybin and psilocin are the
active prniciples of Teonanacatl or “flesh of the gods” the sacred mushrooms of
Mexico. These mushrooms are found in the
genera Conocybe, Panaeolus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia. The mushroom shamans in the Oaxacan highlands
are particularly famed for their mushroom ceremony. Dimethoxymethylamphetamine
(DOM) known as STP is 80 times more potent than mescaline, is responsible for a
large number of “bad trips”, and the usual illegal dose of about 10 mg produces
a reaction that may last 2 or 3 days.
The abuser probably believes the reactions will last forever, a state of
normality is lost, thereby producing a panic effect, which often results in a
bad decision which may prolong the severe mental illness for 6 months (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 405, 407, 408, 411, 410)
Myristica fragrans
(Myristicaceae) (Nutmeg) is a powerful hallucinogen, capable of removing one
completely from the world of reality in a hypnotic trance accompanied by golden
dreams and euphoric bliss. Powdered
nutmeg or mace is taken orally or sniffed, dose requirements vary greatly. For some a single tablespoon mixed in water
as a hot toddy is sufficient to induce hallucinations, for others as many as
six tablespoons are necessary. Almost
always, there are unpleasant initial side effects, heache, dizziness, nausea,
and sichening hangovers, which indicate that nutmeg is generally toxic when
used in large amounts. After
approximately 45 minutes the user finds himself giggling in a silly manner at
everything. After 30 to 60 minutes of
laughter the mouth and throat begin to dry up.
Nutmeg or mace intoxication is characterized by a feeling of detachment
from reality. Visual hallucinations may
occur, but auditory and other hallucinations are more common. Despite its ready availability nutmeg is a
drug that seems to be used only in prison and then only by the rare individual.
South American snuffs were prepared by scraping the inner bark from certain
trees, mostly of the Virola (Myristicaceae), boiling until all water has
evaporated, toasting the sediment over a slight fire, and finely powdering. The effect of Virola or yakee intoxication
usually includes initial excitability shortly after the first sniffing,
followed by numbness of limbs, facial muscle twitching, lack of muscular
coordination, nausea, visual hallucinations, and ultimately a deep disturbed
sleep. Objects often appear unnaturally
large (macroscopia) and this enters into the belief that a spirit dwells in the
plant. Virola, can also be drunk. The
active principle of Virola is due to several tryptamines N,N-dimethyltryptamine
(DMT), N-methyltryptamine (NMT) 5-mehyoxy-N,N, dimethyltryptamine
(5-MeO-DMT). DMT taken by itself,
orally, is inactive, but it may be smoiked with marihuana or tobacco, sniffed,
or injected, with essentially instantaneous effects beginning in 2 minutes and
lasting less than an hour. DMT is found
among the Fabaceae, in the seeds of Anadenanthera
(piptabdenia) peregrine, A. colubrine,
and in the skin glands of toads in numerous Bufo
spp. (Elvin-Lewis ‘409, 410, 411,413).
No more
interesting or complex narcotic drink can be found than ayahuasca, caapi, or
yaje, prepared basically from the bark of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi or B.
inebrians (Malphighisaceae) along with other species. Most critical for maximum hallucinogenic
effet appear to be Psychotria catharginensis,
P. viridis (Rubiaceae) or Banisteriopsis
rusbyana, all of which contain DMT.
Other occasional additive include Malouetia
tamaquarina and Tabernaemontana
spp (Apocynaceae), powdered tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum) and other Solanaceae (Brunfelsia sp., Lochroma fuchsioides, Juanulloa
ochracea), Teliostachya lanceolata
var. crispa (Acanthaceae), Calathea
veitchiana (Marantaceae). To prepare
ayahuasca (called cipo in Brazil) the vine of Banisteriopsis is cut into
section and allowed to almost boil in a saucepan of water, the leaves of
Psychotria are added at this point and the two are simmered together for about
half an hour. The rust-brown liquid is
cooled, then bottled and corked. It is
acrid tasting and may be stored for up to 4 weeks. Families use the beverage without harm or
addiction and they frequently gather in groups for large drinking bouts. Always there is one person who does not drink
(to bring anyone out of a bad hallucinating experience). The participants shut their eyes and wait for
the hallucinations while background music is played. A few vomit, but soon the visions begin,
bright colors and large objects and animals, particularly snakes and jaguars,
and cities they have never visited.
Seeds of Rivea corymbosa and Ipomoea violaceae (Convolvulaceae) were
associated by the Aztecs and other Mexican Indians with divination. Morning
glory seeds are finely ground to flour and soaked in cold water. After a short time the liquid is passed
through a strainer and drunk. A dose
includes sufficient seeds to fill a beer cap or the cup of a hand, those Rivea are considered less potent and
women use them, the more potent black seeds of Ipomoea are taken by the men.
The hallucinations are similar to those of peyote and psilocybin. The seeds are commercially available as the
varieties Heavenly Blue and Pearly Gates (I.
violacea) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 416, 413).
D-lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD-25) which was synthesized from ergometrine (eronovine) one of
the ergot alkaloids of the fungus Clavicepts
purpurea. A less powerful
hallucinogenic derivative is D-lysergicacid amide (LAA) or ergine, found in the
seeds of morning glories as well as in ergot.
LSD is 4000 tims more powerful than mescaline. Discovered on the afternoon of 16 April 1943
it was popularized in the 1960s.
Ingesting or injecting only 100µg of LSD has a striking impact on the
senses. Perception is greatly modified,
colors become bright, even brilliant, sounds become louder and more
important. Sense impressions overflow
into one another and become confused and distorted. Emotions become heightened, defenses and
reserves are lessened, and mood changes may become extreme. Another characteristic of the LSD trip is
that memories and experiences for the past flood the use and if these experiences
are unpleasant, the user may become extremely frightened, and once begun, such
a bad trip may last for many hours. If,
however, the experience is pleasant, the subject maintains a pleasant satisfied
feeling for 6 or more hours in a state of comfortable detachment. Ergot is the
sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, the
fungus that parasitizes the growing kernels of rye and wheat principally, but
alo other less knowm members of the grass family. Ergot destroyes the ovaries of the grain, and
the kernel is replaced by a brownish violet, horn-shaped mass that protrudes
from the head of the grain. The ergot
alkaloids are derivatives of lysergic acid and the hallucinogenic D-lysergic
acid amide. The chief effets of these
alkaloids are gangrenous and convulsive.
In gangrenous ergotism the fingers start to tingle, vomiting and
diarrhea follow, and within a few days gangrene appears in the toes and
fingers. Entire limbs are affected, and
amid excruciating pain as circulation is decreased, they separate from the
body. The convulsive form starts the
same way but is followed by painful spasms of the limb muscles, culminating in
epileptic-like convulsions. Known as
St.Anthony’s fire, it was a dreaded disease wherever infected rye bread was
eaten. Dark bread is darker when the
brownish violet ergot contaminates it.
An epidemic in France in 994 killed about 40,000. In earlier days seeking God’s protection
against this affliction the poor would flock to the churches where they were
fed the bread eaten by the clergy (lighter-colored loaves, made from
uncontaminated rye or even wheat) and before long their symptoms disappeared,
as daily consumption of ergot alkaloids was reduced or eliminated (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 415-417).
Tabernanthe iboga
(Apocynaceae) ibogaine is the most important hallucinogen indigenous to the
African continent. Found in Gabon, the
Republic of the Congo and a large area of Zaire, it is cultivated in west
Africa. Iboga is used as a hallucinogen and aphrodisiac like African
yohimbine (Corynanthe yohimbe). Iboga is
prepared from dried root bark and masticated into a fine powder, often with
other plants, or the root raspings are chewed until the desired effect is
obtained. There are visual
halluvinations accompanied by anxiety and apprehension among the few whites
having teken the drug, but for the African natives the drug represents an
unmatched power with strong spiritual, animistic overtones. Ointments of Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus and Datura were used in the Middle Ages to induce hallucinations. The
species Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, and Mandragora officiarum contain
scopolamine, which is kown hallucinogenic.
Belladonna is highly toxic. Mdragora (mandrake) has the most
folklore, like henbane it is recommended as a sedative and for nervous
conditions, it once served as a pain killer in surgery, and as an aphrodisiac
as well. Datura. A genus of about 20 species, distributed worldwide and Methysticodendron, a monotypic genus of
Andean Colombia, are rich in scopolamine.
Intentional use varies from smoking Datura leaves for respiratory
diseases to using D. fasuosa for
ensuring fertility furing female puberty initiation in southern Africa. There is a growing use of D. stramonium to induce
hallucinations. In one sample as many as
one half hallucinated and one quarter exhibited delirium and serious toxic
symptoms. The severely intoxicated user
is usually acutely ill with fever, flushed, with dilated pupils and in an incapacitating
state of confused delirium. The usual
hallucinations appear as a parade of material objects, flowers, sport cars,
girls. Ine sees these objects usually in
their simple colors, not so bright as LSD.
On analyzing five deaths brought on by the mental state of those using
stramonium two wandered into the desert and died of exposure, one walked into a
lake and drowned and two drowned in a pond while searching for red-eyed
dolphins. If the five could have been
restrained, all would probably have recovered from the acute phase in 24 hours,
although pupil dilation may continhue for a week. Removed from the typical tryptamine
derivates, are the isoxazoles found in a mushroom, Amanita muscaria (fly agaric).
Widly distributed in North Temperate Eurasia these mushrooms are
culturally important to the indigenous people.
The active hallucinogenic compounds are ibotenic acid and panthgerine
(muscimol). People calling themselves
Aryans swept into Afghanistan and India from the northwest seom 2000 years
before Christ. Their language was Indo-European,
the Vedic tongue and they possessed a hereditary priesthood with elaborate and
sometimes bizarre rituals and scarifices.
They had many gods, but unique among them was Soma: a god, a plant, and
the jioce of that plant. It was a very
real god, something quite tangible.
Soma, is the mushroom fly agaric.
Muscimol from this mushroom is the only known hallucinogen excreted by
our kidneys unaltered, and many tribesmen practice ritualistic drinking of the
urine of intoxicated individuals until very recent times. We have drunk the Somak we are become
immortals, We are arrived at the light, we have found the gods. What now can hostility do to us, what the
malice of mortals, O immortal Soma! (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 418, 421-426)
Δ’-3,4-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol
(Δ’-THC) responsible for the pscyhoactivity of marihuana of Cannabis sativa (Cannavaceae) is unique
because it is nonnitrogenous. Although
other tetrahydrocannabinols are present and may help induce a euphoric
state. The fresh plant contains almost exclusively
cannabidiolic acids, the precursor of the active THCs, which are transformed
during the drying and storage of the material, during extraction. Transformation may also occur during smoking,
indeed, the effective dose on smoking 200-250µg/kg, on ingestion it is
300-480µg/kg. Early use and
domestication of Cannabis sativa is
lost in the antiquity of Asia. It was
valued as long ago as 6000 BC in China, the Assyrians used it as incense, and
in India and Africa the drug played major roles in religion and magic, as an
aphrodisiac, and in activities requiring endurance or physical effort. An early mention of its intoxicating resin
dates from 600 BC when Herodotus wrote that the Scythians burned its seeds to
produce a narcotic smoke. Galen recorded
the use of hemp in cakes which if eaten in sufficient quantity would induce
intoxication. Its most universal value
is an euphoric narcotic: the user finds himself in a dreamy state of altered
consciousness, often with a feeling of well-being, exaltation and inner
joy. But this extremely good feeling may
alternate with states of depression where panic and fear of death are
experienced. Commonly ideas are
disrupted, uncontrollable and sometimes plentiful. Vivid hallucvinations may be experienced,
they sometimes are pleasant and have sexual ovetones. Marihuana has been used to treat glaucoma and
it shows antibiotic activity against Gram + bacteria. Δ’-THC is highly fat soluble and binds
to plasma and cellular proteins, its metabolites accumulate in the brain and
other tissues, and it affects the central nervous system by altering the
turnover rate of the major neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and
acetylcholine. Cannabis intoxication
prevails almost throughout the world. It
is the opium of the poor (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 427-428).
A number of drugs
that act to depress the cenral nervous system produce effects of euphoria and
well-being beginning with sedation (calming, traquilizing) followed by hypnosis
(sleep), general anesthesia, and coma, and ending with death fron respiratory
failure as the dose increases to higher levels.
Abuse may lead to addiction, a compulsion characterized by three
features: a tendency to increase dose because tolerance develops, appearance of
physiological changes when drug use is discontinued (i.e. withdrawal symptoms)
and a strong desire to continue taking the drug. This addictive property of many depressants,
which include alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opium and its derivatives
morphine, heroin, and methadone, is their great danger to mankind. Alcohol in several forms, beer from cereal
usually hops (dried flowers of Humulus
lupulus), wine from frutis and berries, and mead from honey, was well known
by the beginning of recorded hstory.
Some suggest that mead, possibly the oldest of alcoholic beverages
appeared druign the Paleolithic Age (ca. 8000 BC) and unquestionably man has
indulged in alcohol for religious, social and medicinal purposes ever
since. Medicinal use by the Egyptians is
recorded among the papyri, which attest to the use of beer and wine as behicles
for other medicines, and tranquilizers and soporifics. Once distillation had been developed by the
Moslems, many of the distillates, such as brandy fro wine and whisky from beer,
were mixed with sweeteners and herbs for use by physicians to counter a variety
of illnesses. Ethanol was the potent
constituent in many such concotions.
Alcohol has numerous other uses, as a solvent to remove oils such as
those from poison ivy, as an evaporator to cool the skin during fevers, as a
disinfectant, as a pain reliefver, as an appetite stimulator, and as a
treatment for the common cold (to make the patients sleepy enough to rest).
Most alcohol is consumed not for medicinal purposes, however, but for pleasure
and solace by hundreds of million, of whom an estimated 9 million persons or
about 10% of drinkers in the United States, have become enslaved by alcohol
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 432, 433).
The basis for all
alcoholic beverages is fermentation, the chemical action of yeast (commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae) acting on
sugar in the presence of water. Yeast
recombines the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of sugar and water into ethyl
alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide. To
obtain alcohol at concentrations higher than that produced by fermentation,
alcohol is heated and vorpors are collected and condensed into liquid again, in
a process known as distillation. Wines
contain about 12% alcohol. Dessert wines
(port, sherry) are ordinary wines that have been fortified with additional
alcohol to reach concentration of about 20%.
Beers, are all made by fermenting carbohydrate extracted from malted
barley and boiling with hops (dried flowers of Humulus lupulus) the latter giving beer its characteristic pungent
plavor. The types of beer vary in
alcoholic content (e.g. lager 3-6%, stout 4-8%). Liqueurs have a high sugar content (up to
50%) an alcoholic concentration between 20 and 50% and they contain various
herbs, spices, and extracts. Brandy,
distilled from grape wine, is probably the oldest of the commercial
liqueurs. Whisky was made commercially
in Ireland during the twelfth century and there are now several major types,
bourbon from corn with rye and malted barley, scoth from malted barley and
corn, Irish whiskey from corn and malted and unmalted barley, and rye from rye
and malted barley. These grains are
brewed with water to form a strong beer (5-10% alcohol) minus the hops, then
distillled and aged in oak barrels for 2 to 8 years before blending. Generally the final product contains 40 to
50% alcohol. Other distilled beverages
include rum (distillate of fermented molasses containing 40-70% alcohol. Gin (distillate of any fermentable carbohydrate,
flavored during a second distillation with juniper berries and containing
35-50% alcohol) and vodka (distillate of potatoes or most other carohydrates,
but free of other flavous, and with 35-50% alcohol) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 433-434).
Alcohol requires
no digestion and is absorbed rapidly and unchanged from the stomach and small intestine
through the bloodstream. There it pases
to the liver, is acted on by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, and is
eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen. Generally among moderate drinkers between
0.25 and 0.33 ounces of alcohol is oxidized per hour. I intake is faster than oxidation, bookd
concentration increases and with that increase behavioral effects become
apparent. Nausea and upset stomach are
typically experienced by those who overindulge.
Withdrawal from alcohol may involve tremors, seizures, visual or
auditory hallucinations or both, delirium tremens (frenzied excitement with
tremors) and blackouts). Sobering a
highly intoxicated alcoholic may take up to 48 hours. Fructose treatment speeds the elimination of
blood ethanol by approximately 25%.
Taking so many calories from alcohol, alcoholics have little appetite
but are often malnourished. Excessive
intake of alcohol also affects the production of white blood cells, lowering
disease-resisting capacity. The
alcoholic develops a fatty liver, and his chances of developing cirrhosis
(liver cells replaced by fibrous scar tissue are greatly increased. A damaged liver cannot adequately manufacture
bile wich is necessary for the digestion of fats, thus the alcoholic often
feels weak and sufferes from chronic indigestion. Heavy drinking is associated with
heart-muscle damage, deterioration of the brain, and damge to fetuses. Heavy drinkers were largely responsible for
25,000 auto deaths and 800,000 auto accidents in the United States during
1971. After alcohol barbiturates are the
next most widely uised depressant. About
10 billion sedative doses are manufactured each year in the United States. Bartiburates are all synthetic compounds
derived from barbituric acid, which is a combination of urea and malonic
acid. Barbiturates, commonly known as
sleeping pills, produce all degrees of depression, ranging from mild sedation
to coma. They depress brain function,
and in large doses the rhythm of respiration.
The fatality rate is higher for barbiturates than any other type of
addition (more than 3000 barbiturate suicides per year, or 20% of all suicides
in the Untied States, and more than 1500 deaths from accidental
poisonings). Alcohol potentiates the
barbiturates, the two depressant are synergistic and the practice f using both
undoubtedly accounts for the unusually high number of accidental self
poisonings and death from respiratory depression (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 435, 436,
437, 438).
Tranquilizers
depress eh central nervous system, relive tension and anxiety and sometimjes
relax the skeletal muscles. The minor
tranquilizers, meprobamate (Miltown, Equanil), chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and
diazepam (Valium) have effects so similar to the barbiturates that distrinction
is difficult. The major difference is
that minor tranquilizers produce a little less sleepiness and interfere less
with motor activities than do the barbiturates.
The major tranquilizers belong to a group of derivates of phenothiazine,
a drug synthesized in the last century but not developed until the 1950s. They are used from treating patients in acute
or chronic psychoses, especially schoziphrenia, which includes about 50% of the
mental patients in North Amkerica. The
drugs can be administered to calm the violent, the hyperescited, and the
fearful sufficiently to render them receptive to therapy. For example, the wide use of chlorpromazine
for treating the schizophrenics, replacing insulin and electroconvulsive
therapies, had reduced the population of mental hospitals in the United States
from a peak of more than 550,000 patients in 1955 to 338,000 in 1970. There is no more dramatic evidence of the
effectiveness of tranquilizers on the acutely disturbed. The first tranquilizer was found in Ravolfia serpentine (Apocynaceae) and it
remains the most important drug employed in the relief of a major killer, high
blood pressure. The natives of the south
Pacific islands used the rhizomes and roots of Poper methysticum (Piperaceae) or kava to make a beverage that
relaxed body and mind, induced refreshing sleep and eased pain. From the root of kava have been isolated
methysticin, yangonin, dihydromethysticin and dihyrokawain. The rootstocks are either reduced to
fragments and chewed to a soft mass with saliva, the quid is mixed with cold
water or coconut milk, and the foamy liquid is strained and consumed a few
hours later or are grated and macerated in cold water or coconut milk, and the
liquid is filtered before drinking. The
kava prepared by chewing has a narcotic effect.
It paralyzes muscles, particularly the lower limbs, it increases the
force, but decreases the rapidity of the heart’s action and it iat first
stimulates, tehn depresses, respiration.
Unlike alcohol, the drug does not impair mental alertness. A small quanitity gives rise to a euphoic
state of short duration characterized by tranquility and friendliness. In larger doses, the kava prepared by chewing
disturbs vision (pupils become enlarged and respond slowly to light) and muscle
coordination (staggering) and acts as a powerful hypnotic (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
439).
Opium is a
powerful drug derived from the poppy Papaver
somniferum native to the Middle East.
If its capsule is cut between the time the petals frip and before the
capsule is mature, a period of about 10 days furing the yearlong growth of this
annual, a milky sap emerges. When left
in the open, the sap dries into the brown, gummy substance known as opium. Throughout history opium has been a servant
to man, but many men have also been dependent and addicted servants to it. Opium is possibly the oldest narcotic known,
for as early as 4000 BC the Sumerians referred to it as the joy plant. The drug was used medicinally in ancient
Greece and Roem, and Arabian traders introduced it into China. During the Middle Ages a variety of opium
preparations appeared int eh form of a laudanum or tincture (opium in about 10%
thenaol) to ease pain and the create general euphoria. Opium became very popular in the 19th
century. A survery of Boston drugstores in 1888 revealed that of 10,000
prescriptions filled, 1481 contained opiates and among those refilled three or
more times, 78% had opiates. By the turn
of the century one out of every 400 Americans had some kind of opium habit. In China around 1000 AD opium was essentially
monopolized by the elite. In the viewo f
the last Ming emperor (1628-1644 it was not opiuj that was evil but the
American plant called tobacco being smoked by so many people. He forbid the use of tobacco, and gradually
more and more opium was mixed with the New World plant, eventually only pure
opium was smoked , from specially made pipes.
Thus the Chinese introduced the world to opium smoking. Opium was also used in India. The huge market was China where millions were
addicted even though smoking had been banned by the emperor a century
before. Although the East India Company
could not sell or transport opium directly to China, massive public auctions
were held in India, and tons of opium were sold to British and Ameican
merchants (e.g. the opium clipper fleets form Boston and New York) who smuggled
it into china through Canton. Everyone
made vast sums of money. The volume of
the illicit trade continued to rise until in 1838 the emperor changed viceroys
in Canton and installed an official whose integrity astonished the world. He took the imperial edicts literally and
confiscated and destroyed all opium found on British and American ships. In one swoop this amounted to 2,640,000
pounds of opium. A year later, following
a racial incident the Opium Wars began.
Within two years 10,000 British troops backed by the largest fleet in
the world were victorious over 350 million Chinese. The emperor conceded Hong Kong island but the
victors got much more, reimbursement for the destroyed opium at Canton, broad
trading rights within China including commerce in opium. A decade later the Second Opium War weakened
China further, and by this time all European powers and the United States got
their pieces of China. Finally, in the
boxer Rebellion, bands of Chinese, dedicated to throwing foreigners out of
their country. In 1913, with about 25
percent of the Chinese addicted, great pressures within China and cries in
Parliament and from the British people forced the British-Indian trade in opium
to an end. It was not until after World
War II and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China that illicit use
of opium was virtually eliminated (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 441-442).
Of the more than
25 alkaloids obtained from opium and its extracts, the most important are
morphine (4-21%) codeine (0.8-2.5%) noscapine or narcotine (4-8%) papaverine
(0.5-2.5%) and thebaine (0.5-2%).
Isolated in 1803, morphine came into general use as a painkiller in the
1830s, but only after the perfection of the hypodermic needle in 1853 could the
drug be used to obtain rapid relief. It
was widely dispensed during the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian war
and addiction to morphine became known as the soldier’s disease. Substitues were sought, and in 1898, with
major acclaim, heroin was placed on the market as a harmless, nonaddicting
substitute for morphine and codeine. By
1905 a leading text asserted that heroin was addictive. Action in the central nervous system includes
a general decrease in brain arousal to painful stimulation and also depresses
repiration in overdose. Female addicts
often have delayed and irregular menstruation and likelihood of pregnancy is
reduced, if pregnancy results, there is a much greater risk of a handicapped
birth, such as low birth weight. Heroin overdoses that fatally depressed
respiration accounted for 1154 deaths during 1970 alone. The average person who
injects heroin daily develops the habit within 2 weeks (based on normal dose of
1/6-1/4 grains of morphine 4 times daily for 2 weeks). Tolerance develops swiftly and when the
addict want to repeat the intensity of the first euphoric experience he must
increase the dose. The addict feels
normal for only a short period whereupon withdrawal symptoms appear until
another dose is administered. The addict
begins to inject heroin not to feel good but to prevent feeling sick. Withdrawal is characterized by muscle
twitching of the feet and legs, about 12 hours after the last dose of heroin,
and this increases for several days (thus the term “kicking the habit”). Treatment by pharmacological methods in the
United States have centered around methadone maintenance programs. Methadone is synthetic addictive opiate
developed in Gemrnay during World War II.
Methadone depresses respiration less acutely than morphine and heroin
and is equally powerful. It does not
produce as much euphoria or drowsiness and withdrawl symptoms are less severe
because they occur over a longer period.
In treatment programs methadone is given orally once a day, with the daily
dose of 10mg increased to 40-50 mg during the first stage. At this level craving for opiates
disappears. At still higher doses
(80-140 mg) methadone prevents withdrawal symptoms, stops the desire for
opiates and blocks the preasurable effectsof opiates. The side effets of methadone resemble those
of other opiates (weight gain 80%, constipation 70%, delayed ejaculation 60%,
increased use of alcohol, increased frequency of urination 37%, numbness I
extremities 32%, and hallucination 17%) and many relapse to heroin. Elsewhere addicts are administered heroin,
thereby eliminating the criminal element.
Lactuca quercina and L. virosa (Asteraceae) are cultivated in
France, and the extracted lactucarium, reputed to be a mild sedative is used in
cough mixtures to replace opium. In
Thailand leaves of Mitragyna speciosa
(Rubiaceae) are chewed and smoked as a substitute for opium, as are seeds of Pterygota alata (Sterculiaceae) in
Pakistan. A tincture of oats (Avena sativa) has been employed
successful for centuries by Ayurvedic Indian practitioners to cure the opium
habit. Organic solvents such as
chloroform, paint thinners, lacquers, enamels, cigarette lighter fluid, polish
and spot removers, gasoline and glues have all been used to get high. Uncoordination, restlessness, excitement,
confusion, delirium, coma that may last from a few hours to several days, and
even death can result. Repeated
inhalation induces dizziness, giddiness, hallucinations, and unconsciousness, along
with neurological effects such as confusion, ataxis, tremor, itching, neuritis
and paralysis of peripheral and cranial nerves (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 442, 443, 445, 446).
V.
Toxic
Plants
Plant’s relating
to man’s health fall into three categories: those which injure, those which
heal and nourish, and those which alter the conscious mind. Man’s first cosmopolitan tranqulizer derived
from Ravolfia did not come into general use until 1952, despite its long
history of use in Ayrvedic medicine in India, or that cromolynm the miraculous
prophylactic drug for asthma, has only recently been introduced, though its use
in the form of Ammi sees was part of Bedouin fold medicine for centuries. In various environments there are found
hundreds of plants that are injurious if ingested and are capable of causing any
number of symptoms, including death.
People in rural settings, of course, are exposed to nature’s lethal
organisms every day, but even those in more urban areas must be wary of garden
and house plants. Few realize, for
example, that apple seeds contain cyanide, which may be lethal in large doses;
that the alkaloid taxine from the common English yew is rapidly absorbed and
causes sudden death; that the leaves and twigs of boxwood, so common as a
heding plant, produce another alkaloid, buxine, which contributes to
respiratory failure in humans and domestic animals; that children using
peashooters made of elderberry stems may be poisoned from exposure to this
plant’s alkaloids and cyanide; and that eating green and sprouting parts of
potatoes may cause severe poisoning.
Likewise, common house plants such as oleanders, caladiums, and
philodendrons must be avoided, for a person ingesting the leaves of oleander,
or its sweet nectar, may develop severe vomiting, irregular heartbeat, and
respiratory paralysis, followed by death.
Hay fever and dermatitis result from an abnormality of our immune system
known as allergy. The abundant grasses,
trees, weeds and fungi in our environment produce pollen, spores and other
materials to which we become sensitized so that on reexposure they cause
discomfort Primeval man in search of food undoubtedly experienced much
poisoning. He learned by trial and error
that eating certain mushrooms, berries, and roots could produce various degrees
of gastrointestinal discomfort or death, whereas others could be ingested
safely. Certain lessons were learned
quickly, and primitive, food gathering man soon became a toxicologist of no
mean ability. This knowledge became
useful, he prepared arrow poisons from plant extracts to bring down his game or
foe, he threw crushed leaves of particular plants into water and with little
effort quickly obtained a bountiful supply of stupefied fish, and he learned
also wash poison (e.g. cyanide) from a number of common, staple foods to make
them edible (Elvin-Lewis ’77: vii-viii, 4-5, 11).
In classical
times, peoples of the Near East, Greece and Rome developed the criminal arts to
a high degree of lethal efficiency. In
classical Rome, for example, mushrooms were the poison of choice, and were
expertly used by Agrippina, wife of Emperor Claudius and mother of Nero. Agrippina had Lollia Paulina put to death
because Claudius, in a careless moment, remarked on the beauty of Lollia. Next came Marcus Silanus, whom she poisoned
because Claudius was about to name him heir rather than Nero. Thus Agrippina embarked on a reign of terror
in which she eliminated anyone in Rome who stood in her way. Finally, after five years, Claudius realized
what she was doing and resolved to put an end to her power and her impoeral
desires for Nero. He decided to name
Britannicus his hear, but Agrippina was more determined. She fed Claudius poisonous mushrooms, and he
was dead in 12 hours without uttering a word.
When the Senate deified Claudius, Nero, who was by then enthroned,
remarked that mushrooms must be the food of the gods, for after eating them
Claudius had become a divine dead god, and he, Nero, an emperor god. Higher plants were among those studied by
Cleopatra in her search for a suicidal poison.
Using her prisoners and slaves as guinea pigs, she was quite
systematic. It was reported that she was
not satisfied with the effects of either henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) or belladonna (Atropa belladonna), for they produced too much pain in spite of
their rapid action. She was further
disappointed with Strychnos nux-vomica
from which strychnine was eventually extracted; although its action was
instantaneous, it produced convulsions that left distorted facial features at
death. Finally, she selected the bite of
the asp (Egyptian cobra) which produced a serence and prompt death! Although
our “Arsenic Lilly’s” still manage to kill husbands and even get away with it
the practice is fading. Incidence of
poisoning is increasing. Plants comprise
the third largest category of poisonings reported from the Poison control
Center (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 12).
The major
poisonous principles found among plants are organic compounds, such as alkaloids,
diterpenes, cardiac and cyanogenic glycosides, notri-containing compounds,
oxalates, resins ,and certain proteins and/or amino acids. Alkaloids are a heterogeneous group of
thousands of different compounds.
Distribution of most alkaloids in higher plants is highest in
Apocynaceae, Berberidaceae, Fabaceae, Papaveraceae, Panunculaceae, Rubiaceae,
and Solanaceae whereas Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, and Gymnosperms are almost
alkaloid-free. Glycosides yield one or more
sugars (glylcone) and one or more other compounds (aglycones) on
hydrolysis. Toxicity is commonly
associated with aglycone moiety of these compounds. Cyanogenic glycosides yield hydrocyanic acid
(HCN) as one produce of hydrolysis. The
most widely distributed of these is amygdalin, which is commonly found in the
Rosacea (rose family). Amygdalin is
found in large quantities in seeds of apples and pears and in the stony seeds,
bark and leaves of apricots, bitter almonds, wild and domestic cherries, peaches,
and plums. In the hydrolysis of amygdalin,
a two step process, two molecules of glucose are released, the first caused by
the enzyme amygdalase, the second by prunase.
Freee hydrocyanic acid is the violently toxic end product of hydrolysis. The severity of poisoning from cyanide in
plants depends on how much free HCN and/or cyanogenic glycoside exists in the
plant. Hydrocyanic acid inhibits the
action of the enzyme cytochrome oxidase, the terminal respiratory catalyst
linking atmospheric oxygen with metabolic respiration. HCN poisoning is asphyxiation at the cellular
level. As little as 0.06 g has caused
death in man, and the largest known dose from which a person has been known to
recover is 0.15 g. Some important toxic plants having cyanogenic glycosides
are: Chenopodiaceae; Suckley. Passifloraceae; Adenia. Passiflora;
Euphorbiaceae. Manihot, Stillingia; Rosaceae. Cercocarpus, Cotoneaster,
Eriobotrya, Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Rhodotypos; Fabaceae. Acacia, Cassia,
Dolichos, Lotus, Phaseolus, Trifolium, Vicia; Saxifragaceae. Hudrangea; Murtaceae.
Eucalyptus; Linaceae. Linum; Olacaceae. Ximenia; Caprifoliaceae. Sambucus;
Bignoniaceae. Crescentia; Asteraceae. Ageratum, Bahia, Florstina; Angiosperms:
Monocotyledons. Juncaginaceae. Triglochin; Poaceae. Cynodon, Glyceria, Locus,
Panicum, Sorghum, Zea. Antraquinone
glycosides yield aglycones that are anthraquinones, and either the aglycone or
glycoside would be expected to have purgative activity. They include such pants as cascara (Rhamnus purshiana, Rhamnaceae), frangula
or buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), aloe
(Aloe barbadensis and other species,
Liliaceae), rhubarb (Rheum spp.,
Polygonaceae), and senna (Cassia senna,
Fabaceae) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 13, 14, 17, 18)
Many different
genera of the Apcynaceae family have compounds having digitalislike action on
the heart and circulation. Cardioactive
glycosides are not restricted to the Apocynaceae, in fact, the most widely used
cardiac glycosides used in medicine today are found in the disparate genus Digitalis of the Scrophulariaceae. It is logical that the cardioactive
glycosides of the Lilliaceae arose independently of those found it the
Aponcynaceae and Scrophulariaceae. The cardioactive glycosides are
characterized by their specific action on the cardiac muscle. The aglycones are steroidal. As many as 400 cardiac glycosides have been
characterized, most from the Apocynaceae (Acokanthera, Apocynum, Nerium,
Strophanthus, Tanghinia, thevetia), Aslepiadaceae (Asclepias, Calotropis),
Liliaceae (Bowiea, Convallaria, Urginea), Moraceae (Antiaris), Ranunculaceae
(Adonis, Helleborus), and Scrophulariaceae (Digitalis, Scrophularia). Saponin glycosides are widely distributed
among the higher plants. Following
hydrolysis they yield an aglycone (sapogenin) that is either a type of steroid
or triterpene. Saponins form colloidal
dispersions in water; they foam when shaken with water, and they usually have a
bitter, acrid taste. They usually
irritate mucous membranes, frequently destroy red blood cells by hemolysis, and
are considered to be for the most part toxic, especially to cold-blooded
animals, such as fish. Some of the
plants having useful steroidal sapogenins include Dioscorea spp. (yams,
Dioscoreaceae), Agave spp, and Smilax spp. (Lilaceae). Other plants containing biologically
interesting triterpene saponins and/or sapogenins are Glycyrrhiza glabra (livorice, Fabaceae), Panax ginseng (ginseng, Araliaceae), Fagus sylvatica (beech, Fagaceae), Hedera helix (English ivy, Araliaceae), Phytolacca americana (poke, Phytolaccaceae), and Medicago sativa (alfalfa, Fabaceae).
Coumarin glycosides are not common, but they are important and several that are
known to be poisonous are found in Artsmisia spp. (wormwood, Asteraceae (as
anthelmintics, Virunum pruifolium
(black haw, Caprifoliaceae) as antispasmodics, Melilotus spp. (sweerclovers, Faceae), Aseculuc spp. (buckeyes,
Hippocastanaceae), and Daphne mexereum
(daphne, Thumelaeaceae). There are many
other kinds of glycosides, and a number of these are considered to be poisonous
principles, such as those whoch prevent thyroid from accumuluating inorganic
iodine as found in broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage, kale and all species of
Brassica, and irritant oils such as those obtained from mustard (seeds of
Brassicaceae) and buttercup (ranunculin of Ranunculaceae) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 14,
18, 19 ,20).
Oxalic acid is the
only organic acid of plants toxic to animals under natural conditions, occurs
in plants as soluble (sodium and potassium) and insoluble (calcium) oxalates or
acid oxalates. Oxalates rarely reach dangerous
levels except in certain Oxalis spp.
(wood sorrel, Oxalidaceae), Rheum rhaponticum (rhubarb, Polygonaceae), Rumex spp. (dock, Polygonaceae),
and Portulaca oleracea (purslane, Portulacaceae). Certain species of the Araceae are known to contain high levels of calcium oxalate. Resins
are amorphous products of a complex chemical nature that are insoluble in water
and do not contain nitrogen. Resins are
hard, transparent or translucent, soften on heating and finally melt. Often they occur in mixtures with volatile
oils (oleoresins), gums (gum resins), and sugars (glcoresins). Some species containing toxic resins are
among the most violent poisons, such as members of the Apiaceae (Cicuta, water hemlock), Asclepiadaceae (Asclepias, milkweeds), Ericaceae (Kalmia, laurel; Rhododendron, rhododendron or azalea),
and Meliaceae (Melia azedarach, chinaberry tree). Phytotoxins are protein
molecules of high toxicity found in a small number of plants. They are similar to some bacterial toxins in
structure, physiology and reaction, and their action as antigens. The important ones known to the pea and
spurge families are abrin (Abrus
precatorius, Faceae), curcin (Jatropha
curcas, Euphorbiaceae), ricin (Ricinus
communis, Euphorbiaceae), robin (Robinia pseudoacacia, Fabaceae), and an uncharacterized
phytotoxin in Aleurites fordii (Euphorbiaceae). In addition a highly toxic albumin known as
modeccin has been isolated from the roots of Adenia digitata (Passifloraceae). Plants may absorb and accumulate
nitrate compounds, selenium, molybdenum, and other elements at levels harmful
to animals. Nitrates often reach
dangerous levels in plants, particularly among crop plants such as oats, corn
and sorghum, and among the more weedy families (Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae), and are often the direct
result of excessive use of fertilizaers.
After digestion, the nitrates are reduced to nitrites, which are many
more times toxic than nitrates, particularly in ruminants (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 20,
21).
Freshwater Anabaena flos-aquae, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, and Microcystis aeruginosa (blue-green
algae), all common in algal blooms, are undoubtedly responsible for extensive
loss of life in livestock, pets, wild animals, birds and even man. Toxicity of such blooms may result from the
toxic fast-death factors produced in certain blue-green algae from products of
decomposition, and from toxins produced by bacteria that are often associated
with these blooms. Poisoning does not
occur unless a dense bloom of toxic organisms is formed and toxic material is
thus concentrated. Extensive growths of
algae may be a nuisance, but most do not include large numbers of harmful
organisms or enough toxic products to be dangerous. Shellfish poisoning, which has caused hundreds
of cases of severe intoxication and death, is due to the presence of specific
toxic algal substances in healthy shellfish.
Mussels, clams, scallops and other molluscs, and invertebrates such as
crabs have been found to contain dangerous levels of toxic agents. Epidemics have occurred on both the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts of North America.
Toxicity in shellfish is due to blooms of Gonyaulax catanella on the Pacific coast and of G. tamarensis on the Atlantic coast;
these are Dinoflagellates that are
ingested in extraordinarily large numbers by shellfish. The toxic principle produced by these Dinoflagellates is a complex nitrogenous
compound known as tetrodotoxin, which
accumulates in the tissues of shellfish without harming them. Cooking probably eliminates about one-third
of the toxicity on the average, but not below dangerous levels. Another Dinoflagellate
bloom (red tide) is conspicuously red and is associated with massive
poisoning of fish and other marine animals (turtles, oysters, shrimp, crabs,
dolphins). Such toxicity is linked to Gymnodinium brevis in Florida and G. veneficum in Great Britain, although
the active principle is unknown. These Dinoflagellates are rapidly toxic to
marine animals, and in many cases fish have been observed to die almost
immediately after swimming in an area where the algae are numerous (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 22, 23).
Fungi are found
everywhere, their poisonous principles are readily divisible into those that
produce toxic substances, the mycotoxins, and those such as mushrooms that
possess toxins. Mycotoxin contaminated
food may result in serious hazard to health, the toxins often remain in food,
that is not visibly moldy, long after the fungus that produced them died, and
often remain toxic after food has been cooked. Aspergillus produce a specific group of mycotoxins called
aflatoxins. Aflatoxin B1 is
most frequently found in food, and is the most powerful carcinogen known. Any food is susceptible to aflatoxin
contamination once it becomes moldy.
Symptoms of poisoning become apparent at 10 to 100 ppm contamination of
livestock feed. Aflatoxins interact with
DNA and markedly affect transcription of genetic information in animals, cells,
and microorganisms. 24 Ergotism, or St. Anthony’s fire, is caused by
the fungus Claviceps purpurea, which
parasitizes cereal grains and is ingested by man through flour milled from
contaminated rye Elymus spp (wild
rye), Agropyron spp. (wheat and quack
grasses), Agrostis alba (redtop), Poa spp. (blue or June grasses), and other
cereals. The baking of bread, for
example, does not alter the alkaloids produced by ergot, and ingestion of small
amounts daily over a period of several weeks or longer results in chronic
poisoning. The alkaloids ergonovine and
ergotamine act by contracting arterioles and the smooth muscles of the
digestive tract, giving rise to gangrene of the extremities, vomiting, muscle
twitchings, and a staggering gait.
Ingestion of large amounts of ergot results in convulsive ergotism and
death unless the source of contamination is decreased or removed. Ergot alkaloids also contain lysergic acid in
combination with various amine-bearing structures. Thus hallucinations are an additional symptom
of ergotism. Basidiomycetes are mushrooms that pose a serious danger
particularly in the North Temperate zone where toxic species are abundant. Amanita
phalloides and its close relatives account for about 90% of all
fatalities. Fungi may induce enteritis (Entoloma sinuatum, Russula spp., Lactarius
spp., Boletus satanus) or cell
destruction (Amanita phalloides and
other species, Gyromitra esculenta, Lepiota helveola), affect the nervous
system (Amanita muscaria, A. pantherina, Clitocybe spp., Inocybe
spp.) or produce hallucinations (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 23, 24).
Amanita phalloides (death cup) is found in deciduous
woods and is fairly common North America and Europe. One or two mushrooms ingested cooked or raw
produce no symptoms for about 10 hours, then suddenly the patient is seized by
extreme abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and excessive thirst. Pain is excruciating, loss of strength is
rapid, and is usually accompanied by convulsions and coma. Death that follows in 50% to 90% of the cases
can occur as early as 48 hours, although it is more usual after 4 to 6 days in
children and 6 to 8 days in adults.
Liver damage is found in the majority of patients who recover,
degenerative changes in the kidney, liver and cardiac muscles are also common. Gyromitra
eculenta (flase morel or lorchel) looks like a highly prized edible morel
but is poisonous to some individual, not to others, who sometimes eat the
mushroom for years, then suddenly become susceptible to poisoning. The effects of this plant and of Lepiota helveola (poisonous lepiota)
resemble mild poisoning by Amanita
phalloides). Entoloma sinuatum (livid agaric) is known to cause severe or fatal
poisoning in Europe. Symptoms of chiefly
violent sickness and diarrhea, generally within one-half hour of eating,
gradually causing great weakness. Damage
to the liver is frequent. Similarly, Russula emetic (sickener), Lactarius torminosus (wooly milk cap)
and Boletus satanus (devil’s boletus)
result in gastroenteritis, which may be either severe to the point of fatality,
or mild. Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) is a hallucinogen that occurs through
the Northern Temperate zone, in wooded areas.
It is found singly or in groups, sometimes in circles (fairy rings) and
frequently around birth trees.
Fatalities are rare; the main symptoms are malaise, vomiting and
diarrhea, slow pulse, rapid breathing and hallucination. Amanita
pantherina (panther cap) is similar to A.
muscaria, but it produces more severe symptoms. Clitocybe
and Inocybe spp. contain as much
as 3% (dry weight of muscarine. Symptoms
of muscarine poisoning may occur quite rapidly (increased salivation,
perspiration, abdominal pain, diarrhea, slow pulse, constricted pupil,
asthmatic breathing and cardiac or respiratory failure in severe cases, but
fatalities are infrequent, hallucinations do not occur (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 25,
26).
Parmelia molliuscula, is a ground lichen that is toxic
to cattle and sheep, the toxic principle is usnic acid. The ferns (and fern allies)
Equisetaceae, Equisetum arvense and E.
palustre (horsetails) are toxic to cattle and horses. Thiaminase is the major toxic component. Polypodiaceae, Notholaena sinuate (jimmy fern) causes 25% mortality rate when
ingested by sheep. Onoclea sensibilis (sensitive fern) has been reported to poison
horses. Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) contains thiaminase, which destroyed
thiamine and results in a Vitamin B1 deficiency and causes serious
poisoning, particularly in horses and cattle.
Extracts have carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. The toxicity is passed through the milk of
cows and is a potential health hazard.
The carcinogenic principle is shikimic acid. Gymnosperms Cupressaceae, Cupressus macrocarpa (Monterey cypress)
leaves induce pregnancy complications and abortion in cattle and Juniperus viriniana (red cedar or
juniper) and other species are considered toxic to livestock. Cycadeaceae, Cycas circinalis (fern palm) Dioon
edule (chamal), Macrozamia miquelii,
Microcycas spp., and Zamia integrifolia (coontie) possess
fleshy seeds that are poisonous, but if the harmful ozoxy glycocides are washed
out the seeds can be eaten. These plant
parts are especially poisonous to cattle and Zamia is particularly toxic.
Pinaceae, Pinus ponderos
(western yellow pine) has caused abortion and P. taeda (loblolly pine) has caused death, from needle consumption,
in cattle. The alkaloid taxine is found in the bark, leaves and seeds of all Taxus spp. (yew) Taxus baccato (English yew) and T. cuspidate (Japanese yew) and is
rapidly absorbed from the intestine.
Death is sudden and survival after poisoning is uncommon. Children should be warned to avoid the
alluring bright colored aril-seed.
Mortality of livestock is well known. Angiosperms contain by far the
most numerous and diverse toxic materials.
Phylogenetic groups 1-11 are the dicotyledonous families and groups
12-15 are monocotyledons (Elvin’Lewis ’77: 26, 27, 28).
Phylogenetic Group
1. Annonaceae (Custard Apple). Annona cherimola (custard apple) seeds
and stem cortex extracts are used as fish poisons and insecticides. Myristicaceae (Nutmeg) Myristica fragrans causes hallucinations. Aristolochiaceae (Birthwort) Artiolochia petersian and perhaps all
species of Dutch man’s pipe are poisonous to both men and livestock. A few leaves are enough to kill a goat. Afristolochia
grandiflora in Panama is known to kill deer and has been used by criminal
for poisoning. Calycanthaceae
(Calycanthus) Calycanthus fertilis
(Carolina allspice) contains calycanthine (similar to strychnine) and is
reported to have poisoning cattle in Tennessee.
Lauraceae (Laurel) Persea
Americana (avocado) leaves, fruit, bark and seeds have poisoned cattle,
horses, goats rabbits, canaries, and fish.
Piperaceae (Pepper) Piper
dariensis poisons fish in Panama.
Menispermaceae (Moonseed) Chondodendron
tomentosum (pareira) is a chief ingredient in South American Indian arrow
poisons or curare, it contains the neurologically active bis-isoquinoline
alkaloid tubocurarine. Extracts of the
inner bark and wood of pareira, one or more species of Strychnos, and sometimes
other species, are boiled to a gummy mass that sticks to arrows. Menispermum
canadense (moonseed) toxic principles are isoquinoline alkaloids, invluding
dauricine with a curarelike action, which have caused fatalities to children
eating the fruit. Birds, however, are
known to eat the fruit and seeds without harm.
Ranunculaceae (Buttercup) Aconitum
spp. (aconite, monkshood, A. reclinatum
(white flowers), A. uncinaturm (blue
flowers), A. columbianum in western North America, A. napellus (blue flowers) is European, A. vulparia is Eurasian and used as a narcotic in Chinese
medicine. All parts of the plant contain
the alkaloid aconitine, as well as other alkaloids. The root is the most dangerous part but the
leaves are greates in toxicity just before flowering. The main symptom of poisoning is numbness,
followed by paralysis of the lower then upper extremities, leaving the mind
clear. Weak pulse, respiratory
paralysis, and convulsions are typical, with death occurring in about 2
hours. In ancient times a decoction was
given to criminals as fatal punishment and, on the Greek island of Ceos, infirm
old men were compelled to take a draught of aconite. Acaea pachypoda (white berries) and A. rubra (red berries are eastern North American and A. arguta is western North American and A. spicata (black berries) is
European. All parts of the plant are
toxic. Chief symptoms are a quickening
of the heart, gastroenteritis, and dizziness, symptoms usually disappear after
3 hours. As few as six berries can
result in severe symptoms, but fatalities are rare. Helleborus
foetidus, H. niger (Christmas
rose) and H. viridis all contain
cardiac glycosides that cause violent purging, delirium, convulsions and death
from respiratory failure. The main
cardiac stimulant is hellebrin. Papaver
(poppy) are distasteful to livestock and rarely cause poisoning, although they
contain numerous potentially toxic alkaloids (morphine, codeine,
papverine). A number of species are
widely cultivated: Chelidonium majus
(celandine poppy), Argemone Mexicana prickly
poppy), A intermedia, A. glauca, Papaver nudicaule (Iceland poppy), P. orientale (Oriental poppy), P.
rhoeas (corn poppy) and also P.
somniferum (opium poppy) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 29-32).
Phylogenetic Group
2 Fagus spp. (beech) and Quercus spp. (oak) cause poisoning in
livestock who eat too many beech nuts or acorns. Phylogenetic Group 3 Polygonaceae (Buckwehat) Polygonum puctatum (water smartweed)
contains about 7% calcium oxalate in leaves, is poisonous to man and may be
fatal to livestock. Rheum rhaponticum
(rhubarb) leaf blades have resulted in fatal poisonings. Blood clotting is impaired, vomiting and
diarrhea are caused by the soluble oxalates.
The petiole, however, is pleasantly acidic and edible. Phylogenetic
Group 4 All parts of Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), K. angustifolia (lambkill) and K. polifolia (pale laurel), including
pollen, contain andromedotoxin, a toxic diterpene causing slow pulse, lowering
of the blood pressure, lack of coordination, convulsions, pregressive paralysis
and death. Arbutin, a glycoside of hydroquinone, is also present and indicated
in the poisonings. Poisonous honey is
made by bees attracted to this plant, and children have been poisoned sucking
flowers. The Delaware Indians used
mountain laurel to commit suicide.
Phylogenetic Group 5 Violaceae
(Violet) viola odorata rhizomes and
seeds cause severe gastroenteritis, nervousness and respiratory and circulatory
depression. Passifloraceae (passion
Flower) Adenia volkensii is
considered a serious human poison in eastern Africa and may contain both a
cyanogenic glycoside and a phytotoxin like the southern Africa A. digitata. Capparidaceae (Caper) Capparis fascicularis and C.
tomentosa leaves, bark, roots and fruit have caused human and livestock
deaths. Brassicaceae (Mustard) Armoracia rusticana (horseradish) can be
fatal to livestock feeding on tops or roots.
Mustard oil containing isothiocyanates is considered the poisonous
principle. Brassica spp. (broccoli, cabbage, charlock, kale, rape, turnip,
black mustard) may cause serious loss of livestock, especially rape poisoning
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 32, 34, 35, 36
Phylogenetic Group
6 Sterculiaceae Theobroma cacao (cacao tree) fuit wast products may cause the
obromine poisoning with death resulting from sudden heart failure. Malvaceae (Mallow) Gossypium spp. (cotton) cottonseed meal, the residue left afte rhte
cottonseed oils have bee pressed out, can be poisonous to cattle because of the
presence of a sesquiterpene phenol, gossypol.
Moraceae (Mulberry) Antiaris toxicaria (upas tree) latex
containing two cardioactive glycosides antiarin x and z, is extremely toxic and
is used in tropical Asia as a principal poison for arrows and darts. It was used as an instrument of execution in
Java in 1776 to punish 13 concubines of the king who were convicted of
infidelity. All died within five minutes
of being pierced with a poisoned awl, in great agony. A single Aleurites fordii (tung oil tree)
seed can result in serious illness, not uncommon in cattle. Cotom spp (marans contain croton oil
predominantly in seeds, but also in stems and leaves that is a powerful
purgative, death occurs in man and domestic animals on ingestion of small
amounts. Excoecaria venenifera milky latex
is very poisonous and particularly injurious to the eyes. Manihot
esculenta (cassava, manioc, tapioca) raw roots and leaves can have high
concentrations of hydrocyanic acid sufficient to cause death from cyanide
poisoning. Acute poisoning can be avoided
if the roots are peeled and several changes of cooking water are employed
during preparation for eating. Ricinis
communis (castor bean, castor-oil plant) seeds contain the highly poisonous
phytotoxin ricin, which if chewed will cause nausea, muscle spasms, purgation,
convulsions, and death, kidney dysfunction (uremia) is common. Two to four seeds seriously poison man, eight
usually being fatal. Because of the hard
seed coat, poisoning is unlikely unless the seed is chewed. The plant is toxic to all livestock. Buxuaceae (Boxwood) Buxus sempervinerens (boxwood) is an Evergreen shrub native to
Eurasia that is cultivated in eastern North America. The alkaloid buxine and volatile oil in the
leaves and twigs, cause vomiting and diarrhea, death from respiratory failure
follows ingestion of large amounts (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 36, 39).
Phylogenetic Group
7 Rosacreae (Rose) Malus spp. (apple)
and Pyrus communis (pear) seeds
contain the cuanogenic glycoside amygdalin, which yields hydrocyanic acid
(prussic acid) on hudrolysis. A cupful
of apple seeds may be fatal. Prunus spp. (apricot, bitter almond,
cherry, cherry laurel, peach , plum) contain amygdalin in their stony seeds,
bark and leaves. Prunus serotina (wild black cherry) all parts, but especially the bark,
leaves, and seeds contain the cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, and the closely
allied prulaurasin and prunasin, which gives hydrocyanic acid on
hydrolysis. The resulting cyanide
poisoning leads to difficulty in breathing, spasms, coma, and even sudden,
unexpected death. Arachis hypogaea (Peanut) meal may be toxic as a result of
contamination with aflatoxin from the fungus Aspergillus flavus. Paseolus lunatus (lima bean) contains a
cyanogenic glycoside phaseolunatin in very small amounts in the lare, white
lima beans grown commercially in the United States. A number of tropical varieties, smaller in
size, possess phaeollunatin and the enzyme capable of releasing hudrocyanic
acid at levels considered dangerous.
Cooking does not altogether destroy these compounds. Pysostigma
venenosum (calabar or ordeal bean) is exceedingly poisonous due to the alkaloid physotigmine (serine), P. mesoponticum of eastern Africa is
also lethal to man. Sesbania spp. (coffeebean, rattlebox, sesbane) seeds contain
saponins that result in diarrhea, rapid pulse, respiratory failure, and even
death. Flowers are also poisonous. Phylogenetic Group 9 Linaceae (flax) Linum
usitatissimum (flax) leaves and seed chaff contain the cyanogenic glycoside
linamarin, from which the enzyme linamarase is capable of releasing
cyanide. Erythroxylaceae (Coca) Erythroxylum coca (cocaine) is a stimulant.
Rutaceae (Rue) Citrus aurantium
(sour orange) better orange peel when eaten in quantity will cause violence
colic, convulsions, and even death in children who ingest large amounts of
rind. Simaroubaceae (Quassia) balanite aegyptiaca bark containing a
saponin, is used as a fish poison. It is
valuable because it is nontoxic to man and other warm-blooded animals. Anacardiaceae (Cashew) Anacardium rhinocarpus stem bark is used as a fish poison in
Panama. Magifera indica (mango) old
leaves ingested over a long period will cause death in cattle. Phylogenetic Group 10 Loranthaceae
(Mistletoe) Phoradendron serotinum
(mistletoe), P. villosum, oak tree
parasite on Pacific coast, and European Viscum
album are widespread and the berries contain toxic amines and proteins that
may cause gastroenteritis if eaten in large quanitities. Oleaceae (Olive) Ligustrum vulgare (common privet)
berries and possibly leaves contain a glycoside causing gastroenteritis in
children who eat the fruit. Horses and
sheep have been fatally poisoned.
Vitaceae (Grape) Parthenocissus
quinquefolia (Virginia creeper) of eastern North American and Asian P. tricuspidata (Boston ivy is suspected
of causing poisoning deaths in children.
Apiaceae (Carrot) Cicuta maculate
(water hemlock) root is particularly dangerous, a mouthful being sufficient to kill an
adult. The poisonous principle is
cicutoxin, also found in the above ground parts. Roots are mistaken for parsnips and the small
tuberous rootlets for potatoes. Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) all
parts especially young leaves, unripe fruit and roots contain the poisonous
alkaloid coniine, as well as other alkaloids.
Symptoms of poisoning include vomiting and diarrhea, inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract, mental confusion, convulsions and death. Caprifoliaceae (Honeysuckle) Sambucus spp. (elderberry) contain
uncharacterized poisonous alkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides. Flowers and ripe fruits are edible
(Elvin-:Lewis ’77: 45, 47, 49, 50).
Phylogenetic Group 11 Lobaniaceae (Logania) Strychnos
nux-vomica (strychnine tree) and S.
ignatii (poison nut) of tropical Asia, the dried seeds yield the indole
alkaloids strychnine and brucine, which are the main toxic constituents. All parts of the palnts including the flowers
contain strychnine, which is extremely toxic and fatal to man at doses from 60
to 90 mg. Strophantus spp. seed extracts, containing the cardiotonic agent
strophanthin are used in modern medicine when immediate relief from heart
failure is needed. Tanghinia venenifera (Tanghin) of Madagascar seeds are notoriously
poisonous, they contain tanghin, a cardiac glycoside characterized by
digitalislike activity. The seeds have a
long history as an ordeal poson for judgments of all kinds of crimes from
murder, conspiracy and witch doctor, to stealing or for settling a debt. Forced to drink a draft or be killed by a
soldier’s spear, the accused was judged innocent by the ruling regime if he
swallowed in a gulp and promptly vomited, but if afraid, he would sip slowly
and die almost immediately. Guilt, of
course, was predetermined, and since death was related to the strength of the extract,
the judge could decide well in advance which way he wanted the trial to
go. Such ordeals became infamous and the
French, who colonized the island destroyed all the tanghin trees they could
find. Thevetia peruviana (yellow oleander) contains the cardiac
glycosides cerbrin, neriifolin, and thevetin, which produce symptoms similar to
those of fatal digitalis poisoning. All
parts of the plant are dangerous, and most fatalities are the result of misuse
of decoctions in folk medicine. Urechites spp. (yellow nightshade) seed
pods eaten in quantity will cause heart failure. Asclepiadeaceae
(milkweed) Asclepias spp. (milkweeds)
are dangerous to cattle, the cardiac glycosides known to be present in almost
all species of the genus result in severe poisoning not only to livestock but
to man. Calotropic procera (giant milkweed) latex, containing the cardiac
glycoside calotropin, is extremely potent and is used on arrows in Africa. Minute amounts are said to produce
death. It has also been used for murders
and suicides in tropical America. Scrophulariaceae
(Snapdragon) digitalis purpurea
(foxglove) are a source of cardiac glycosides used in controlled does for
treatment of heart disease, poisoning can result from overdose of medication or
when children eat the seeds or leaves, or such the flowers. Symptoms include vomiting and purging, severe
headache, irregular heartbeat and pulse, convulsion and death, which occurs
suddenly.
Solanaceae (Potato) green
shoots are highly toxic. Atropa belladonna (belladonna, deadly
nightshade) roots and leaves contain L-hyoscyamine, hyoscyamine (atropine) and
scopolamine (roots also include apoatropine, belladonnine, and cuscohygrine)
and these alkaloids in overdose can be fatal to man. The main symptoms are flushed skin, dilated
pupils, dry mouth, delirium and death from repiratory failure. Nicotiana
tabacum (tobacco) contain the toxic alkaloid nicotine, which causes
vomiting and diarrhea, slow pulse, collapse, and respiratory failure. Deaths from eating the leaves as boiled
greens are known and livestock have also died following ingestion of the
plant. All species of Nictiana contain nicotine (e.g.) N. alata of South America, N. attenuate and N. quadrivalvis of western United States, N. rustica of Mexico, and N.
trigonophylla of the southwestern United States and Mexico and all “wild”
tobaccos that have been smoke by native populations. Solanum spp. (nightshade, potato, Jerusalem cherry) including S. tuberosum (potato) of Andean South
America widely cultivated, contain several distinct glycoalkaloids (e.g.
solanine) are responsible for poisoning in Solanum,
and on hydrolysis these compounds yield either di or tri saccharides and one of
several alkamine aglycones that are steroidal.
The intact glycoalkaloid is irritant, and the steroid alkamine is
responsible for the major nervous symptoms.
Effects of irritation include nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, and
constipation or diarrhea, the nervous effects are apathy, drowsiness,
salivation, weakness or paralysis, circulatory and respiratory depression,
unconsciousness and death. The most
poisonous part of the plant is the unripe ruit, but stems, leaves and roots are
also dangerous. Eating green and sprouting
potatoes may cause severe poisoning, one should never eat potatoes if they look
green below the skin, or if spoiled, and discard all sprouts. Isotoma
longiflora, containing isotomin (producing paralysis of heart) is poisonous
in livestock. Eupatorium rugosum (white snakeroot) causes a disease known as
“milk sickness” the toxic principle of which is an unstable alcohol, designated
tremetol, in combination with an incompletely characterized resin acid. Tremetol is readily excreted in mil. “Milk sickness” was common in early colonial
times, and it became on of the most dreaded diseases from North Carolina and
Virginia to the Midwest until the early nineteenth century. Drinking such milk or eating other
contaminated dairy products results in weakness, nausea and vomiting,
constipation, tremors, prostration, delirium and even death for many. Mortality ranges between 10 and 25% but the
massive loss of life of former times cannot occur with current processing
methods (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 52-57).
Phytogenetic group 14. Peaceae (Grass) Avena sativa (oats) having high nitrate content and fungal
contaminants, may cause serious loss of cattle and horses after ingesting this
type of hay. Phylogenetic Group 15 Liliaceae
(Lily) Agave lecheguilla
(lechuguilla) leaves have been known to poison range animals, with morbidity
reaching 30% in severe outbreaks. Alium spp, (onion) may cause poisoning
in cattle and horses after ingestion. In
Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus
meadow saffron) is found colchicine and other alkaloids throughout the plant
with highest concentrations in the seeds and corns. The main symptoms of poisoning are burning of
the throat and stomach, vomiting, purging, weak-quick pulse, kidney failure,
and respiratory failure commonly resulting in death. Ornithogalum umbellatum (star of Bethlehem) contains cardiac
glycosides, which can cause nausea and gastroenteritis. Veratrum spp (false hellebore) contains many alkaloids, with major
effects on the heart and vessels. Blood
pressue is lowered, arterioles are dilated, and a general cardiac depressant
effect is caused by these alkaloids.
Most cases of poisoning have been through misuse of medical
preparations. Dioscoreaceae (Yam) Dioscorea spp. (Yams) are important
foods when properly prepared. Washing
and/or boiling removes the poisonous saponins, which if not eliminated could
cause fatal poisoning. Yams are a major
source of diosgenin, a steroid precursor used in making birth control pills
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 60-62).
Pesticides block
some metabolic processes, they differ in composition potency, and target –
insecticide, fungicide, herbicide.
Insecticides penetrate the integument of the pest and are particularly
effective against insects with sucking mouth parts. The naturally occurring contact insecticides
are nicotine from leaves of Nicotiana
rustica (Solanaceae) purethrum from flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and other species (Asteraceae). Synthetics abound since DDT was discovered to
be an insecticide in the 1940s. These
include chlordane, lindane, toxaphene, aldrin, and dieldrin. Crop yields soared but it was discovered that
the chemical DDT was a threat to animals, including man. Fungicides prevent or stop the development of
fungal diseases on crop plants. They are
based on such chemicals as sulfur, mercury and copper and usually have a broad
spectrum of action. They can be highly
if ingested. A tragic example was an
outbreak of mercury poisoning in Iraq during 1971-1972, when misuse of seed
grain treated with methylmercury led to the loss of 459 lives because many
farmers baked bread with the treated wheat, despite warnings printed on the
sacks of grain. Herbicides may kill most
vegetation on contact or they may be selective.
Nonselective chemicals include sodium, chlorate, sulfuric acid, and the
bipyridyls, but selective agents have important applications in
agriculture. Thus 2,4-D, dalapone and
MCPA possess individual properties that enable agriculturalists to use them
selectively, some to control broad leaved weeds in cereal plantings, others to
control weedy greases in broad leaved crops.
Still other herbicides, such as the carbamates, triazines and ureas,
selectively destroy germinating weeds over prolonged periods without harming
established plants in the same region.
Besides using pyrethroids, you might purchase ladybugs and praying
mantises, which thrive on other insects, as another way to rid pests. Still another is to intersperse among your
plants a number of herbs that have proved to be particularly obnoxious to
insects. These include the many culinary
herbs containing volatile oils (basil, peppermint, rosemary,sage, and pansy) as
well as strong-smellling marigolds, onions, garlic, radishes, and
nasturtiums. In addition, many insects,
including mosquitoes, are repelled by the Iemony or citronella herbs (lemon
verbena, lemon balm, pelargonium) which are pleasant to smell or to have as
herb teas, a garden will stocked with these plants is not only attractive and
utilitiarian, it also deters pests without danger to people, their pets, or the
wild creatures of the area (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 369, 370).
Part B Medical Treatment
VI.
Pulmonary Medicine
The respiratory
system provides your body with oxygen and rids your body of carbon
dioxide. The key parts of the respiratory
system are terminal bronchioles, alveoli, cilia, trachea, intercostal muscles,
diaphragm and sternum. Terminal
bronchioles are ultrathin branches that are the last in a line of bronchial
tubes that transport gases to and from the alveoli. The alveoli are clusters of hollow sacs where
gases are exchanged between the lungs and the blood-stream. The cilia are millions of tiny hairs lining
the respiratory tract, beating at 12 to 16 strokes per second and creating
waves that move germ catching mucus up and out of the lungs. The trachea is similar to the trunk of a tree
and is the passageway for all the gases entering and leaving the lungs. The intercostal muscles connect rib to rib
and help open and close the rib cage when you breathe. The diaphragm forms a
curved sheath below your lungs and when you breathe in, your diaphragm drops,
increasing the size of your lungs. The
sternum is a plate of bone down the center of your chest holding in place the
lung-protecting rib bones in the front of your body.
All lung diseases put together are the third
leading killer in the United States and is the cause of one in six deaths. Lung disease may refer to many chronic
conditions such as asthma, allergies and to deadly, but largely treatable
diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and
tubercolosis. Every year an estimated
400,000 people die from diseases of the lung; an age adjusted death rate of 135
per 100,000. More than 35 million people
have chronic lung diseases. An estimated
12.1 million have COPD, also known as emphysema or chronic bronchitis; Smoking
is the leading cause of COPD. It is
estimated that 438,000 people die from diseases related to smoking cigarettes
such as heart and lung disease and cancer every year (Tucker et al ’01:
17).
Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung, usually caused by
an infection and is the typical cause of death amongst people with influenza.
Three common causes are bacteria, viruses and fungi. Pneumococcal pneumonia is
caused by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae
is also called pneumococcus. Pneumonia
kills an estimated 55,477 annually out of 1.2 million hospital admissions
accounting for 5.6% of inpatient hospital deaths. 60% of elderly people and all
healh professionals receive a pneumococcal vaccine. Colds are
by far the most widespread of all infections in this country affecting more
than 150 million people in the United States each year. Many people, especially children, have two or
more colds annually. In the average
year, colds are responsible for a loss of 440 million workdays and 62 million
school days. Including time lost from
work, doctors’ fees and medications purchased, the annual cost of colds has
been estimated well in excess of eight billion dollars annually. Colds are
infections of the lining of the nose.
The common cold is caused by a virus, not just a single virus but any
one of more than 125. These include
rhinovirus, adenovirus, coronavirus, and respiratory syncytial virus. Because so many viral types cause colds, it
has been difficult to develp a vaccine that would make you immune to the common
cold, since vaccines are targeted at a specific culprit. It also explains why a person who has
recovered from one cold is still susceptible to infection by a different virus
and thus can catch other colds. Viruses
and bacteria are two different things.
Sinus infections are caused by bacteria (bacteria respond to
antibiotics) while a cold is secondary to a virus (which does not respond to
antibiotics). In the U.S., an estimated 25–50 million cases of the flu are
reported annually - leading to 150,000 hospitalizations and 30,000–40,000
deaths yearly. If these figures were to be estimated incorporating the rest of
the world, there would be an average of approximately 1 billion cases of flu,
around 3–5 million cases of severe illness, and 300,000–500,000 deaths
yearly. Over 90% of those deaths are in
persons over the age of 64 years old. On
average there are over 200,000 hospitalizations per year, again a wide range
according to the severity of the season. About 50% of those hospitalizations
are among those ages 64 and older. The
highest rates of infection are in children.
In fact attack rates are often over 30% in some communities, resulting
in school shut downs and parents missing work due to having to stay home with
their kids (24HAUSC(9)(IV)§350:
1416).
Allergies were a
rare disease until about fifty years ago.
Beginning in the 1960s, the rates of hay fever, asthma and other
allergies began to rise slowly. The
upswing accelerated in the early 1980s. Asthma rates among children ages 5 to
14 jumped by more than 80 percent btween 1980 and 1995. Among people age 15 to 64, the rise was more
than 70 percent. However the most
striking increase occurredin the youngest Americans, children ages 0 to 4. Their asthma rates soared by 160
percent. Other types of allergies followed
similar upward trends. More than 50
million Americans have one form of allergy or another. And the United States is not alone, most of
the world’s industrialized countries report similar trends in asthma and other
allergies. The United Kingdom has the
highest asthma rates in the world, followed by Ireland, Australia, New Zealand
and Canada. Though we associate
industrial development with improved health, the surprising fact is that rates
of allergies and asthma are significantly lower in the undeveloped nations of
the world. In 1989 David Strachan, an
epidemiologist at the London School of Hygiene and Tropcial Medicine, examined
the health records of 17,000 British children in search of connections between
their allergies and their family life. His analysis showed that the more older
siblings they had, the less likely they were to suffer from hay fever. Strachan speculated that the older children
were exposing their younger siblings to more viral infections, priming their
immune systems so they could better tolerate pollen. He proposed an explanation – later called the
“hygiene hypothesis” for the rise in hay fever and other allergies. According to the hygiene hypothesis,
childhood exposure to microbes, even harmful microbes, is actually beneficial
for health, because it helps protect us from developing allergies. Another group of researchers, led by John
Gerrard at the University Hospital in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, had come
to a similar conclusion in 1976 after studying the incidence of allergies in
white and native families living in Central Saskatchewan. Gerrard suggest that allergies were “the
price paid by some members of the white community” in exchange for relative
freedom from diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, and parasites. The hygiene hypothesis offered an
expalanation for why developing countries, where hygiene standards tend to be
lower, have not experienced the surge in allergies seen in developed nations. Subsequent studies found that living on a
farm and owning a pet were associated with a lower incidence of allergic
diseases. Quite possibly because people
with allergies would not grow hay or own a pet. The hygiene hypothesis suggests
that exposure to microbes, even harmful ones, can protect against allergies
(Huffnagle ’07: 134, 139). The hygiene
hypothesis dangerously challenges germ theory and when in doubt regarding the
existence of harmful microbes, it is always best to disinfect.
Allergies (Hay
fever) are largely caused by pollen and spores, afflicts no fewer than 13
million victims who endure physical and psychological misery at some time
during the year, but mainly from spring until autumn. Among adults, more than 33 million disability
days annually can be attributed to hay fever and asthma alone, while children
lose no less than 36 million school days because of allergies. In North America, the greatest culprits are
the ragweeds (Ambrosia) in the aster family (Asteraceae), in Europe and in more
equatorial zones, however, grasses (Poaceae) are responsible for many cases of
allergy. Since fungi are found
everywhere, their spores are a constant cause of seasonal and perennial
allergic rhinitis and asthma worldwide.
Usually an immune response can be elicited after contact and recognition
of an antigen by several cell types belonging to the reticuloendothelial
system. This results in the production
of immunoreactive cells and modified serum globulins (antibodies,
immunoglobulins) that can act alone, or with other phagocytic cells, to
eliminate form the body specific antigens int eh form of foreign proteins,
toxins, tumor cells, and infectious agents.
Probably one of the most common abnormalities of the immune system is
the development of the allergic state.
Depending on the overall mechanism involved and the speed and type of
reactions observed five types (I-V) have been distinguished. Immediate
hypersensitivity is related to the development reaginic antibodies, usually
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) and less often IgG, in sufficient quantities to evoke
the symptoms of hay fever, asthma, hives, and anaphylactic shock. These antibodies are produced following
allergen contact, locally within plasma cells embedded in the mucosa of target
areas of the nasopharynx and the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, as
well as elsewhere in the lymphatic system.
After diffusing into the tissue fluid and serum the antibodies attach to
mast cells, basophils and platelets.
Allergen then binds to his cell bound regain, triggering the release of
histamine and other vasoactive substances (serotonins, slow acting substances)
that cause the allergic symptoms of bronchospasm, vasodilation, smooth muscle
contraction and increased bronchial and nasal secretion. Systemic anaphylaxis, a rare event in man, is
the most severe of all allergic reactions.
Typically it can occur after an inciting dose has been given
intravenously to a hypersensitive individual.
It is characterized by sudden vasomotor collapse leading to shock,
paroxysmal bronchoconstriction, and if treatment is not undertaken immediately,
death. Most cases have been associated
with serum therapy (serum sickness) penicillin therapy, and insect stings
(especially the wasp, bee, and hornet).
However, the danger of chamomile tea ingestion by an individual known to
have ragweed and Chrysanthemum atopic
disease and other allergies, is evident (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 64, 65, 66, 67).
Allergic rhinitis,
(Hay Fever) an allergy induced following exposure of the nasal mucosa to the
allergen through inhalation and affects the nose and upper airways, is like a
bad cold that never goes away. The characteristic symptoms include profuse
watery nasal discharge with sneezing, frequently accompanied by redness,
irritated and watery eyes and headache.
As a rule or thumb if a cold lasts more than a week it is allergic
rhinitis. In a susceptible person,
exposure to inhaled allegens, such as animal dander, house dust mites, and
indoor mold spores, triggers and eruption of symptoms: sneezing, a stuffy nose,
and itchy, red, watery eyers. This can
lead to headache, sore throat and difficulties concentrating and sleeping. For some, flare-ups are limited to certain
times of the year, when particular allergens are prevalent. In such cases, the condition is usually
called hay fever or a seasonal allergy.
Common seasonal allergens are grass pollens, tree pollens, and mold
spores. An estimated 40 million
Americans suffer from allergic rhinitis and at least 30 million have hay
fever. In North America there are three
peaks in the pattern of seasonal rhinitis: the first occurs in the spring when
trees shed their pollen; the second, during the summer months, involves pollen
from many grasses as well as late flowering trees and weeds, and the last peak,
in the autumn, is typified by weed and secondarily by grass pollen grains. Ragweed pollen (Ambrosia) predominates during
this time and is the most allergenic pollen found in North America. Many kinds
of fungi and flowering plants are responsible for allergic rhinitis. The most important fungal allergens are found
in the Deuteromycetes, particularly
the families of Dematiaceae and Moniliaceae, which include such
ubiquitous genera as Alternaria, Cladosporium, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Of these Alteranria
possesses the most allergenic substances.
Although they produce a great deal of windborn pollen Gymnosperms rarely
elicit allergic rhinitis, whereas most windborne pollen from Agniosperms are
common incitors. The most troublesome
trees in North America are the oaks (Quiercus),
hickories (Carya) and elms (Ulmus) but weedy urban box elder (Acer) pollen has recently been shown to
have the highest level of allergencity among tree pollen. Many grass family (Poaceae) pollen are highly
allergenic, e.g. redtop (Agrostis),
sweet vernal (Anthoxanthum) orchard (Bactylis), crab (Digitaria) and timothy (Phleum). Of the weedy families, the Asteraceae, containing the ragweeds (Ambrosia), Marsh elders (Iva, cockleburs
(Xanthium) and sagebrushes (Artemisia) and the Chenopodiaceae, including lamb’s quarters (Chemopodium), burning buses (Kochia),
and Russian thistles (Salsola)
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 68, 71, 73, 74).
Higher Plants of
Allergic Significance in Continental United States
|
Geographic Area |
Trees |
Grasses |
Weeds |
Major Pollen |
|
Northeastern. New
England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania |
Birch, elm,
maple, oak, poplar |
Annual blue,
June, orchard, sweet vernal, timothy |
Short and giant
ragweed, plantain |
Ragweeds,
grasses |
|
Middle Atlantic.
Delaware, Maryland, Washington D.C. |
Birch, hickory,
maple, oak, paper mulberry, sycamore |
Orchard, timothy |
Short and giant
ragweed, plantain |
Ragweeds,
orchard grass |
|
Virginias and
Carolinas |
Elm, maple, oak,
pecan, red cedar |
Annual blue,
Bermuda, June, orchard |
Short ragweed,
sorrel, dock |
Short ragweed,
Bermuda grass, pecan |
|
Southern.
Florida and Georgia to eastern Texas, including Texas, Arkansas, and southern
Missouri |
Birch, cottonwood,
elm, oak, paper mulberry, pecan, poplar, privet, red cedar |
Bermuda,
orchard, timothy |
Giant and short
ragweed, pigweed, Russian thistle, water hemp |
Bermuda grass,
pecan ragweeds |
|
North Central.
Ohio and Kentucky to northern Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan |
Ash, cottonwood,
elm, maple, oak |
June, orchard,
timothy |
Short ragweed |
Short ragweed |
|
Plains and
prairies. Minnesota, Dakotas, eastern Montana, Nebraska, Kansas |
Elm, oak |
Bermuda,
blugrass, orchard, redtop, timothy |
Giant, short and
western ragweeds, Russian thistle |
Ragweeds,
Russian thistle |
|
Rocky Mountains.
Idaho, western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah |
Birch, box
elder, cottonwood, Rocky Mountain cedar |
Fescue, June,
orchard, redtop, timothy |
Ragweed, sagebrush,
Russian thistle |
Russian thistle,
sagebrush |
|
Pacific
Northwest. Washington, Oregon, Nevada, northern California |
Acacia, alder,
box elder, birch, cottonwood, oak, walnut |
Bluegrass,
fescue, oats, orchard, redtop, timothy, velvet, western rye Bermuda, Johnson |
Amaranth, canyon
ragweed, Russian thistle, saltbush |
Amaranth,
Bermuda grass, goosefoot, mountain cedar, |
|
Southern
California |
Elm, oak, olive,
walnut |
Bermuda, salt
grass |
Dock, lamb’s
quarters, pigweed, Russian thistle, sage, saltbrush, sea blite |
Bermuda grass,
saltgrass |
Source;
Elvin-Lewis ’77: Table 3-2 pg. 75
Allergic symptoms
are triggered when mast cells – white blood cells that live under the skin and
on all mucosal surfaces, release a chemical called histamine. This chemical is normally a useful part of
the body’s inflammatory response, it makes the blood vessels dilate, thereby
facilitating the movement of white blood cells to injured or infected
tissue. But the release of histamine
becomes a problem when inflammation isn’t needed, as in an allergic
reaction. Antihistamuinesm as the name
suggests, are drugs that counter the effects of histamine, examples include
Benadryl, Claritin, Seldane, Zyrtex, and many others. Though they can relieve respiratory
congestion, they often have undesirable side effects. Sleepiness is a problem
with some antihistamins. Other common
problems include gastrointestinal distraesss, headache, rapid heartbeat, and a
dry mouth. Blood vessels in the lining
of the nose become dilated during an allergic attack. Medication to narrow these blood vessels,
such as Afrin, Claritin-D, Sudafed and others can be administered oraly or via
nasal sprays or drops. But there are
potential downsides. Decongestants can
increase blood pressure, because the blood vessels in the nose are not the only
ones narrowed by these drugs. And since
they’re stimulants they also can cuase sleep problems and feelings of
nervousnesss. Ironically one common side
effect of decongestants is an eventual increase in congestion. This is called the “rebound effect” and it’s
more likely to happen to someone who uses this kind of medication for more than
a few days, in other words, someone with allergies. The control and treatment of allergic
rhinitis falls into three major categories.
The first is related to controlling contact with allergic material. Another prophylactic measure is
hyposensitization of the patient with the affecting allergen, by injecting
increasing amounts of the allergen to develop a high titer of blocking
antibodies proper to normal exposure.
Finally as an adjunct to hyposensitization, acute symptoms are also
treated by the administration of antihistamines and vasoconstrictors such as
ephedrine (Ephedra sinica). Corticosteroid therapy, which may be employed
to terminate a single severe attack, is often effective. However, prolonged use of steroids may be
dangerous (Huffnagle ’07: 141, 74).
Attacks of
bronchial asthma are usually precipitated by inhalation of the specific
allergen, and this form of allergy often has a more chronic course than seen in
allergic rhinitis even though the eliciting agents are the same.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis or extrinsic allergic alveolitis, is often
associated with specific professions. In
these instances, animal, vegetable or bacterial enzyme material may induce the
disease. For example, inhalation of Thermoactinomyces vulgaris or fungal spores of Microsporum
faeni, which can contaminate hay, moldy sugar cane, or mushroom compost,
have been causally related to farmer’s (thresher’s) lung, bagassosis, and
mushroomworker’s lung. In a similar way,
Cryptostroma corticale has been
associated with maple bark disease of woodworkers, Penicillium caseii to cheeseworker’s disease, Aspergillus clavatus and A.
fumigatus to brewer’s lung disease. A regimen of environmental control and
hyposensitization is normally prescribed for pollinosis. Currently, three basic drugs have preempted
ephedrine for use in the control of asthmatic attacks: epinephrine (adrenalin)
and its congeners administered by aerosol, the methylxanthines administered
intravenously for acute attacks and orally for chronic asthma, and the steroids
(cortisone) for severe and intractable states, in combination with other drugs
mentioned. In prophylaxis, particularly
where hyposensitization fails, cromolyn sodium is used, this new compound,
obtained from the seeds of Ammi visnaga
(Apiaceae) is believed to affect the release of vasoactive substances and
therefore, through a regimen of frequent inhalation, acts to prevent or modify
the asthma. This plant, known as khella
from its native Mediterranean region, has a long history of use as an
antiasthmatic among the Arab peoples, who also believe it is useful in the
treatment of angina pectoris. The recent Indian research using the leaves of Tylophora indica (Asclepiadeceae) claims
that complete to moderate relief of nasobronchial allergic symptoms can be
maintained up to one week after ingestion of but a few leaves of the
plant. T. indica, however, is very toxic and also has blistering or
vesicant properties (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 75, 76, 77).
In asthma,
swollen, inflamed airways chronically produce excess mucus. During an asthma attack , muscles that
surround the airways contract, further limiting the flow of air. Breathing can be so impaired that the
situation is life-threatening. Each year
about half a million Americans are hospitalized because of asthma attacks, and
more than four thousand die. Asthma has
become one of the most common chronic diseases of children, affecting 9 million
youngsters in the United States,. The
condition is not confined to children; about 20 million Americans of all ages
suffer from this condition. Current
ttherapies for asthma focus on avoiding triggers. In people with allergic asthma, attacks
result when the immune system reponds to an inhaled allergen, such as pollen,
mold spores or animal dander. In
nonallergic asthma, similar reactions may be caused by cold air, exercise,
certain medications (aspirin is one culprit) and cigarette smoke and other air
pollution. From 1980 to 1995, asthma
rates in adults ages 35 to 64 increased over 60 percent in the United States. Adult-onset asthma is more common in women
than it is in men. Diagnosing asthma and
differentiating it from other possible conditions is important, because proper
treatment can bring relief. Howefver,
treating asthma can be even more challenging for older people than it is for
children. Adults are more likely than
children to be taking medications for other problems, raising the possibility
of adverse drug interactions. Also,
adults may have other medical conditions that can be worsened by asthma
medication. Medications, including
ihaled ddrugs that relax the muscles of the airways, provide quick relief if
brething becomes difficult. But there
are side-effects. For severe asthma,
inhaled steroids and oral anti-inflammatory medicatins are used to address the
underlying inflammation in the lungs.
Among the side-effects of asthma inhalers are elevated blood pressure,
rapid heartbeat, nervousness and nausea.
Long-term use of inhaled steroids may slow a child’s growth or cause
thinning and bruising of the skin. In
addition, there’s always a risk of yeast infections in the mouth because the
steroids prevent the immune system from controlling yeast growth. Early trials
of probiotics, administered via yoghurt and supplements, show significant
benefits in relieving allergic rhinitis.
Chinese investigators studied the benefits of yogurt in 80 teenagers and
children over age 5 who came to a pediatric allergy clinic for treatment. All had suffered from allergic rhinitis for
at leat a year. They were told to
consume one or two servings per day of a yogurt drink, the others were given
the same beverage enriched with an additional probiotic called Lactobacillus paracasei 33.A University
of California, Davis, study followed the health of 60 adults in two age ranges;
20 to 40 years old and 50 to 70 years old.
Twenty participants were assigned at random to consume a serving of
plain yogurt every day for a year, the yogurt contained live probiotics. Antoher twenty also were given plain yogurt
with the same instructions, but this yogurt had been heat-treated to kill the
bacteria. A third group of 20, the
controls, were asked to refrain from eating yogurt for a year. Their responses showed a significantly lower
level of allergy symptoms for those who consumed yogurt, with the best results
for the group that received yogurt with live bacteria. Similar benefits were found in the older and
younger study participants (Huffnagle ’07: 143, 145, 142).
In a major Birtish
project, scientists analyzed questionnaires regarding hygiene from more than
10,000 parents of toddlers enrolled in an ongoing study of children’s
health. The results published in in
Archives of Disease in Chidhood in 2002 found the more washing and wiping the
child had received, the more likely the youngster was to develop asthma and
allergic dermatitis. Several studies
have found that allergic children were far more likely to have a microflora
with decreased levels of probiotic lactobacillus strains and increased levels
of Clostridia and other potentially
harmful bacteria. The results were
published in 1999 in Clinical and Experimental Allergy. .Public hygiene and
exposure to microbes are not the only difference between industrialized and
developing nations. Two other relevant
factors, both of which affect the gut microflora, are antibiotic use and diet. Antibiotic use is significantly greater in
industrialized than in developing countries.
Since antibiotics kill probiotic bacteria in the digestive tract, anyone
who had taken antibiotics is at risk for insufficient exposure to these
essential bacteria. One of the largest
investigations, published in 2002 in the Journal of Allergy and Clinnical
Immunology, was conducted in the United Kingdom, where researchers had access
to a medical practice database that included nearly 30,000 children. Taking antiobitics in the first year of life
was assocated with an increased incidence of asthma, exzema, and hay
fever. And the more courses of
antibiotics a child had received, the more likely the youngster was to develop
these problems. People in industrialized
nations eat significantly more fast food and refined foods, and much less
fiber. They’re also less likely than
people in the developing world to rely on fermentation to preserve food, thus
depriving themselves of a ready source of probiotics. One intriguing study by Swedish researchers
focused on youngsters who attend Steiner schools. These schools are based on the teachings of
Rudolf Steiner, an early-twentiety century Austrian educator (they’re sometims
called Waldorf schools, after the school Steiner established for children of
workers at the Waldorf-Asotria cigarette factory in Stuttgart, Germany). Steiners followers consume a diet that
features whole grains, nuts, fruits, and vegetables. Investigators found that allergies were
significantly less common in children at the Steiner schools compared with
youngsters attending ordinary schools nearby.
Their report, published in the Lacet in 1999, noted that two-thirds of
the Steiner school youngsters ate fermented vegetables, such as sauerkraut and
pickles (Huffnagle ’07: 134, 135, 136, 138, 139).
More than 90% of
upper respiratory tract infections are nonbacterial, and because of their viral
etiology they resist antibiotic therapy.
Treatment is directed to relieving sinus and chest congestion, coughing,
sneezing, and lamaise. Preventive
measures are limited to the use of vaccines against influenza and
adenoviruses. Although vitamin C is
promoted as a cold preventive it has been found to do no more than shorten the
duration of certain colds, rather than prevent them. Nonetheless, large quantities of vitamin C
are the best response to a cold. The
vast number of viral serotypes (rhinovirus (1-80)(most common), cornovirus
(1-20), adenovirus 3, 4, 17, 21) responsible foer the common cold account for
the frequency of this illness. Coldlike
symptoms may also be due to viruses that usualy cause more severe respiratory
and other infections, such as the myxoviruses, parainfluenza (1-4), influenza
(1-3) and respiratory syncytial (10) and the enteroviruses, poliovirus (1-3),
echovirus (11, 20, 25), and coxsackievirus (A21, B4, B5). Similar symptoms may also be caused by Mycosplasma pneumonia, Coxiella burnetii, and Chlamydia psittaci (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
301, 302). A rhino cold lasts on average about a week, with peak
misery on the second and third days. Human influenza is a highly
transmissible respiratory illness that’s caused by the influenza viruses. For
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), a coronavirus, the treatment with no
fatalities was to ventilate the patient and medicate with the antibiotic
levofloxacin (Levaquin), and corticosteroids Methylprednisolone IV and then
Prednisone. For severe echovirus
infections affecting the heart, lungs and GI Human Immune Globulin IV can save
lives. Annual
winter epidemics, called seasonal influenza that affect up to 30% of the
population, killing on average 30,000 a year in the US or 350,000
globally. The incubation time for influenza
(time from exposure to onset of symptoms) is short, about two days. The onset usually is marked by chills, fever,
headache, lassitude and general malaise, loss of appetite, muscular aches and
pains and sometimes nausea, occasionally with vomiting. Respiratory symptoms, such as sneezing and
nasal discharge, may be present coughing, with or without sputum, may occur,
and hoarseness sometimes develops. The
fever of 101-105 ° F (40.6 º C) usually lasts for two to four days. Treatment consists of rest in bed, continuing
for twenty-four to forty-eight hours after the temperature has become
normal. Flu is dangerous to the extent
that it can lead to pneumonia, especially for the elderly, the malnourished, or
individuals stressed by chronic lung or heart problems (HA-24-4-11: 2).
Parainfluenza and
respiratory synctial viruses (RSVs) cause bronchitis, bronchiolitis, sinus
tenderness, swollen glands, red throat, croup and pneumonia, primarily in young
children by members of the paramyxoviridae family of viruses, others of which
cause mumps and measles. Para-influenza
viruses, there are four types of medical interest, cause lower respiratory
diseases in kids and upper respiratory problems in adults. The virus that
strikes in fall and winter, is responsible for approximately 40-50% of croup
cases and 10-15% of bronchiolitis and bronchitis cases and some pneumonias.
They are highly infectious through personal contact and need invade our bodies
no deeper than our noses or throats to replicate in the mucus there. Most people grow immune to them, which is why
parents at the playground aren’t hacking as much as the kids. Respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) infections are usually mild and seem like a common cold.
In most cases, RSV infections go away in about 10 to 14 days. Home treatment to
ease symptoms and prevent complications is usually all that is needed. NSAIDS such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen may
be taken to relieve suffering.
Corticosteroids may be administered if the pneumonia worsens or does not
go away on time. Antibiotics are not
usually necessary but should be administered if an ear infection (otitis media)
or pneumonia develop, both are caused by the same Streptococcus pneumonia bacterium, treated with antibiotics, eg.
Penicillin, Streptomycin and Tetracycline, in conjunction with probiotics. Children who develop lower respiratory
infections, especially bronchiolitis, may need medicines, such as
bronchodilators, for the rest of their lives.
When selecting an inhaler for the first time, or choosing a new one
after triamicinolone (Azmacort) was removed by the producer for fluorocarbon
concerns, avoid salmeterol, salmeterol has been known to be fatal. Flovent
(Fluticasone
Propionate) seems a safe corticosteroid inhaler, available without prescription
from Generics-Discount.com (HA-24-4-11:
2).
Sinusitis is a bacterial infection of the
paranasal sinuses and may result from species of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus
that normally reside in the oropharynx.
Treatment includes the administration of analgesics for pain (codeine,
morphine) vasoconstrictors (phenylephrene or ephedrine) to promote drainage,
and specific antibiotics (Penicillin, erythromycin) to arrest the infection.
Pharyngitis, sore throat or inflammatory disease f the pharynx may be caused by
a number of viruses, bacteria, and fungi.
Streptococcus pyogenes
(Lancefiled type A) is the most common cause of bacterial pharyngitis, produces
an exudative (pus) infection in the lymphoid tissue of the pharynx. “Strep throat” and acute tonsillitis are
often accompanied by symptoms of fever, swollen lymph nodes (adenitis),
headache, chills, and muscle pains.
Scarlet fever may also result.
Rheumatic fever is characterized by painful swollen joints, fever,
myocarditis, rash on the trunk and inner aspects of the thighs and upper arms (erythema marginatum) and rheumatic
nodules over the elbows, knees, hands, and ankles. Salicylates (aspirin) and glycosteroids have
been found to suppress the acute febrile and exudative manifestation of
rheumatic fever but cannot prevent cardiac damage, for which penicillin is
needed. Pharyngitis may also result from
infection with Streptococcus pneumonia
and Staphylococcus aureus, which
normally reside in the nasopharunx and are treatable with erythromycin. Before the development of specific toxoid
immunization, diphtheria infection from Corynebacterium
diphtheriae was a major cause of infantile death throughout the world. Treatment includes administration of
antitoxin and use of penicillin G or erythromycin. Inflammatory infections of the epiglottis,
larynx, and laryngotracheobroncial region are collectively known as croup. Myxoviruses (parainfluenza, respiratory
syncytial and influenza) have been implicated as have Corynebacterium diphtheria, Streptococcus
pneumonia, Hemophilus influenza,
and bordetella pertussis. Ampicillin
and chloramphenicol are useful with H.
influenza (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 303, 304).
Generally, for respiratory, ear, sinus, and brain (meningitis)
infections of bacterial causation, penicillin is the antibiotic of choice, if
the patient is not allergic to penicillin.
If the patient is allergic to penicillin, erythromycin is generally
effective for URI.
Primary Bronchopneumonia (Interstitial
Pneumonia) is caused by infections by certain viruses, and by Mycoplasma pneumonia, Coxiella burnetti, Chlamydia psittaci, and the parasite, Pneumocystis carinii, produce and interstitial inflammation of the
parenchyma resulting in exudate that collects in the interalveolar septa. Parainfluenza and respiratory syncytial virus
infections are more common in children, otherwise disease in both children and
adults may be caused by influenza viruses, adenoviruses, avriola (smallpox), varicella
(chickenpox), and measles virus. In
natural or induced immunodeficiency states, infections of cytomegalovirus and Pneumocystis carinii are more
common. With Mycoplasma, Coxiella, and
Chlamydia infection, tetracyclines
and chloramphenicol have been found useful.
Lobar pneumonia is an infection of the lung parenchyma including cough,
pleural pain, pulmonary consolidation, fever, chills, malaise, and at times
jaundice and cyanosis. Penicillin G,
methicillin and oxacillin are used to treat pneumococcal and staphylococcal
pneumonia, while gentamicin and cephalothin are administered for Klebsiella pneumonia. Eosinophilic pneumonia manifests eosinophils
in sputa from patients exhibit general symptoms of pneumonia indicates
infection with the fungus Aspergillus,
infestionation with the lung flukes (Paragonimus
spp.) and migration through the lungs of the roundworms Ascaris lumbricoides, Dirofilaria,
or larva of the dog tapeworm. Chronic
granulomatous and cavity lung disease is caused by mycotic infection usually
resulting from inhalation of fungal spores of the saprophytic dimorphic soil
inhabiting Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, or yeart cells
of Cryptococcus neoformans, which
usually initiate an acute, self-limiting pneumonitis. The disease known as tuberculosis or
consumption has been an important cause of death in many parts of the world.
Since therapy must be carried out over a period of months, several antibiotics
in combination are often administered simultaneously to prevent the appearance
of resistant mutants. For several years
acombination of streptomycin, paraminosaliculate (PAS) and isoniazid (INH) has
been used (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 304, 305).
Stuff a cold and starve a fever. In homeopathic medicine at the first sign of
a runny nose swiftly take vitamin C and available medicines to avoid a
diagnosis of allergic rhinitis if the symptoms do not stop within a week. Plants trusted in
domestic and aboriginal medicine as efficacious for respiratory disease are
Gymnopserms Ephedra gerardiana
(Ephedraceae), Angiosperms, Asclepiadaceae, Tylophora
indica, Asteraceae, Saussurea lapp
(costus), Campanulacea, Lobelia inflate
(Indian tobacco), Euphorbiaceae, Euphorbia
hirta, Fabaceae, Glycyrrhiza glabra
(licorice), Lamiaceae, Monardo fistulosa
(wild bergamot or horsemint), Scrophulariaceae, Verbascum Thapsus (mullein), Solanaceae, Datura stramonium, Zingiberaceae, Alpinia galangal (greater galangal), Rhododendron anthopogonoides (Ericaceae). Cold remedies include Gymnosperms Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Juniperus virginiana (juniper or red
cedar), Tsuga Canadensis (hemlock),
Angiosperms, Araceae, Acorus clamus
(sweet flag), Asteraceae, Achillea
milefolium (yarrow), Cucurbitaceae, momordica
charantia (whild balsam apple), Betulaceae, Betula occidentalis (western red birch), Lamieaceae, Hedeoma pulegioides (American
pennyroyal), Marrubium vulate
(horehound), Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Salicaceae, Populus balsamifera
(balsam poplar) and P. candicans (balm
of Gilead), Scrophulariaceae, Verbascum
Thapsus (mullein), Solanaceae, Withania
somnifera . Cornus florida (dogwood) was prescribed by pioneer doctors as a
bitter drink made by steeping dogwood flowers, fruit and bark in water for
fevers and chills. Myrica cerifera (bayberry) Oldenlandia
corymboso, and Salix spp. and Populus spp. (willow and poplar) were
also used to treat fever. (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 306-308). There is considerable evidence that heavy doses of vitamin
C, 200 – 1,000 mg may reduce the length of colds. Oranges provide about 100 mg of vitamin C and
are at the peak of their medicinal effectiveness at around 200mg a day. There are other natural sources of vitamin C
many of which also have medicinal qualities that are also useful for the treatment
of colds and flu-like symptoms.
Herbal
Remedies for Cold and Flu Symptoms
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin C ascorbic acid |
Take 200-1,000 mg
daily to shorten duration of cold. Collagen synthesis, amino acid metabolism,
helps iron absorption, immunity, antioxidant.
Found in spinach, broccoli, red bell peppers, snow peas, tomato juice,
kiwi, mango, orange, grapefruit juice, strawberries, rosehips. |
|
Culinary Herb |
Indication |
|
Black Pepper, Horseradish, |
Black pepper is warming, energizing and
stimulating. It is indicated for
“cold-type” problems such as flus, coughs, colds, poor circulation, and poor
digestion. Horseradish is good for sinus congestion and head colds. |
|
Cinnamon Cinnamomum
spp. |
Powerful antiseptic, with antiviral and
antifungal properties. Often indicated
in cases of viral infections, fungal infections, and colds and flus. |
|
Elder Sambucus nigra |
Elderberry and elder flower are among
Europe’s most esteemed remedies for cold and flus, where they line pharmacy
shelves. Elder’s beautiful lacy
flowers are diaphoretic, meaning they induce sweating, thereby helping to
lower fevers. Elderberry has
immune-enhancing properties and are often combined with Echinacea in
immune-stimulating remedies for colds with powerful antiviral properties and
are helpful in treating viral infections including flus, URI, herpes and
shingles. Elderberries make some of
the best syrup, wine, jams, jellies and pies.
The flowers are also edible, making nice fritters dipped in a light
batter. Do not eat the raw uncooked berries in any great quantity as they can
cause digestive upset and diarrhea in some people. |
|
Garlic Allium sativum |
Herb of choice for treating colds, flus,
sore throats and poor or sluggish digestion.
It stimulates the production of white blood cells, boosting immune
function and is a potent internal and external antiseptic, |
|
Ginger Zingiber officinale |
Popular warming, decongesting herb for
cold-type imbalances such as poor circulation, colds and flues, respiratory
congestion and sore throat. Safe. |
|
Sage Salvia officinalis |
Astringent, antiseptic and relaxing action
on the mucous membranes, sage is the classic remedy for inflammation of the
mouth, throat, tonsils and laryngitis.
It can be used as a mouthwash or swab to treat infected or sore gums
and canker sores. |
|
Thyme Thymus spp. |
Fine tea for treating coughs and chest
complaints. rich in anti-oxidants and has a markedly tonic effect, supporting
normal body function. It seems to have
a positive effect on the glandular system as a whole and especially the
thymus gland. |
|
Herbal Teas |
|
|
Cordyceps sinensis |
Enhances physical strength and endurance,
treats pneumonia, respiratory infections |
|
Echinacea Echinacea spp. |
Echinacea can be taken, as a tea or
tincture, at the first sign of a cold or flu to boost immune system
function. Increasing macrophage and
T-cell activity. Rich in vitamin C and
polysaccharides, which have antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial
properties. Particularly effective
against bronchial and respiratory infections, sore throat, and oral
infections. |
|
Lavender Lavandula spp. |
Lavender is an antibacterial, antifungal and
antiseptic agent. More used in washing, fresh can be made into a tea. Useful in treating a host of infections,
including staph, strep, colds and flus.
|
|
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra |
Herb of choice for soothing irritated and
inflamed tissue such as in cases of sore throat, bronchial inflammation and
stomach and bowel irritation. Licorice has a long history of use relieving
throat inflammation and for strengthening the vocal cords. Licorice gently supports the adrenal glands
ability to produce hormones and aids in the breakdown and elimination of
excess or “worn-out” hormones via the liver and kidneys. It has a thick, sweet flavor, which makes
it a nice addition to tea in small amounts.
The root can be almost too sweet, and some people find its flavor
rather offensive when brewed by itself.
To increase its palatability blend it with other herbs in syrups, teas
and tinctures. You can also eat the
licorice root dried or fresh whole root.
|
|
Spearmint Mentha spicata |
Spearmint is sweeter, milder and less
pungent than peppermint and tends to be better for children. Combined with catnip, it’s an excellent
herb for children with a fever. |
|
Probiotics |
|
|
Lactobacillus reuteri |
Cold and respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus plantarum 299v |
Cold and respiratory virus |
Source:
Gladstar ’12; Brown ’04: 82, 83; Huffnagle ’07:
263; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Cough is a natural
reflex to help clear the respiratory system of secretions and foreign
materials. Do not cough on other
people. It is polite to cover your mouth
when you cough. Wash your hands, your
clothes and your “rheum”. Some viruses
and chemicals do not come out in the wash and contaminated articles must be
thrown away. Antitussive (anticough)
agents are sometimes needed to suppress coughing to facilitate rest and sleep
and to reduce irritation of the respiratory tract. Acting centrally by depressing the cough
reflex of the central nervous system, codeine, and to some extent other opium
alkaloids, are probably the most widely used compounds with nethol (peppermint
oil) and eucalyptol. A number of plants
have been used to stop coughing and soothe sore throats, Anacardiaceae, Rhus glabra (sumac), Araliaceae, Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla), Aralia racemosa (spikenard), Fabaceae, Prosopis julifora (mesquite), Myrtaceae,
Syzgium cumini, Ranunculaceae, Xanthorhiza simplicissima (shrub
yellowroot), Rosaceae, Prunus serotina
(wild black cherry), P. virginiana
(choke cherry), Solanaceae, Solanum
surattense. Many individuals who
suffer from respiratory disease find it difficult to clear the chest of
sputum. Expectorants and mucolytic
agents are used to help them. Expectorants and
mucolytics such as guafenesin (Humibid, Tussi-ortganidin) or the herb mullein
help liquefy secretions and allow you to cough up mucus more easily (Tucker et
al ’01: 75). Ipecac syrup (Cephaelus ipecacuanha) is an
expectorant, others are Gymnosperms Pinus
roxburghii, Angiosperms, Acanthaceae, Adhatoda
vasica, Apocynaceae, apocynum
androsaemifolium (spreading dogbane or wild ipecac), A. cannabinum (hemp dogbane), Araceae, Acorus calamus (sweet flag), Euphorbiaceae, Acalypha indica, Hydrophyllaceae, Eriodictyon californicum (yerba santa) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 300). One of the best expectorants is water.
Drinking an adequate amount of water, about one quart per day, will make
clearing phlegm easier, which may lead to improved breathing (Tucker et al ’01:
75).
Although Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) is
considered harmful to all lung conditions, Cannabis
sativa (marijuana), Datura stramonium
(Jimson weed), as well as D. metel
and D. fastuosa can be smoked for the
relief of asthma. Verbascum thapsus (mullein) can also be smoked for pulmonary
ailments and is specifically indicated for bronchiolitis. Bronchodilators relax the smooth muscles of
the bronchioles that lead to the air cells, thereby diminishing generalized
peripheral airway obstruction. Bronchitis
(inflammation of the bronchial tubes) and emphysema (enlarged air spaces in the
lungs, making breathing difficult).
There are two chief types of bronchodilator drugs: adrenergic agents and
those derived from theophylline. The
adrenergic drugs increase the volume and diameter of the bronchial smooth
muscles by relaxing them, include norepinephrine, epinephrine (adrenaline),
isoprenaline, and ephedrine. Ephedrine
is now obtained synthetically, but may be extracted from its original sources, Ephedra aquisetina and E. sinica (Gymnosperms in the family
Ephedraceae). The second type of
bronchodilator includes the theophylline derivates (originally isolated from
tea, Camellia sinensis) which act
directly on the bronchial muscle to relieve obstructions, increase coronary
blood flow and stimulate respiration centrally.
Tea will help you come to your Camellia
sinensis - oral treatment of 100 patients for 20 days proved effective in
93% of cases, of which 58% could be described as excellent. During the course of treatment, sputum
decreased in 91% of the cases, cough in 85% and asthmatic symptoms in 58.1%,
Aerosol therapy was equally effective (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 297, 298).
VII. Cardiovascular Health
The heart has but
one function, to propel blood through the blood vessels of the body. It is simply an oxygen pump. Blood enters the right atrium of the heart
from the lower body by way of the inferior vena caca and from the upper body by
way of the superior vena cava. Blood is
bluish as it enters the right atrium because the oxygen has been largely
extracted by the body tissues. Blood
pressure is low, as the heart relaxes and the right atrium fills with
blood. To drive the blood from the right
and left atria, the sino-atrial node or normal pacemakrer, a small bundle of
nerve tissue in the right atrium, generates an electric wave that starts the
heartbeat, the wave spreads across the atria, causing them to contract, and
forcing the blood into the ventricles.
The blood is thus forced through the tricuspid valve to the right
ventricle. Meanwhile, part of the
electric wave travels along the atrio-ventricular node, a connecting nerve between the atria
and the ventricles. This nerve divides
into two branches between the ventricles, and these in turn branch into many nerve fibrils that permeate the
ventricular muscle walls. The impulse
stimulates contraction, and with great force the blood is pumped into the
pulmonary artery from the right ventricle at the same time the blood is forced
by high systolic pressure from the left ventricle into the aorta. The contraction just described takes place
when ventricles are filled to capacity, it is synchronized, and it is normally
regular in rhythm. Returning to the sequence of circulation, the blood is
pumped into the pulmonary artery through the pulmonary valve and is carried to
the lungs. There it receives a fresh
supply of oxygen, carbon dioxide is released, and form the lungs the blood
passes to the left side of the heart to the left atrium by way of the pulmonary
veins. This thick-walled chamber then
pumps the blood to the whole body by way of the aortic valve and the
aorta. The blood circulates through the
arteries, capillaries, and veins and eventually returns to the right side of
the heart. About 6 quarts of blood make
complete cycle in less than a minute.
The highest (systolic) pressure exists within the arteries when the left
ventricle is ejecting the peak volume of blood into the aorta. The bottom (diastolic) pressure in the
arteries is reached when the aortic valve has closed and the left ventricle is
refilling (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 174-176).
The number of
adults with high blood pressure has risen dramatically over the last ten
years. In 1990, approximately one in
four adults in the United States had hypertension. In 2000, it was about one in three Americans,
or sixty-five million people over the age of eighteen, with elevated blood
pressure. High blood pressure is a major
risk factor for the development of heart disease, including coronary artery
disease (the number one killer of Americans) and congestive heart failure (the
number one cause for hospital admission in people over the age of
sixty-five). It is also a major risk
factor for stroke and kidney damage. In
large populations, the prevalence of hypertension rises with the levels of
sodium intake. Most groups with very low
sodium intake have no hypertension. When
higher levels of salt are introduced, hypertension develops. Only about 5 to 10 percent of high blood
pressure has a known cause. Despite the fact that less than half of people are
salt sensitive, dietary salt restriction will lower blood pressure in most
people (Wilson ’06: x, 1, 22, 23, 28). One problem with high blood pressure is
that most people can’t feel it. That
means that a person could have elevated blood pressure for a long period of
time and be completely unaware of it (Wilson ’06: 30). Hypotension is characterized by an abnormally
low tension of muscle cells in peripheral blood vessels, which are marked by
capillary permeability and fragility (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 178, 196, 191, 177, 178,
179). High
blood pressure is the most common problem for which people go to doctors in the
United States. More than 50 percent of
senior citizens in the United States develop high blood pressure although the
incidence of high blood pressure among senior citizens in countries eating
traditional low-fat plant based diets is virtually none. Ideal blood pressure 110/70 or less (without
medication). Average blood pressure of
vegetarians 112/69. Average blood
pressure of non-vegetarians 121/77. High
blood pressure is defined when the top number (systolic) is consistently over
140, or the bottom number (diastolic) is consistently over 90, while the person
is at rest. Meat eaters have nearly
triple the incidence of high blood pressure as vegans and very high blood
pressure is thirteen times more common in meat eaters. 30-75 percent of patients with high blood
pressure achieve substantial improvement by switching to a vegetarian diet and
58 are able to discontinue high blood pressure medicine they were expected to
have to take for the rest of their life (Robbins ’01: 28, 29). Reserpine and other Rauvolfia alkaloids act on
the sympathetic nervous system by depleting almost all the neurotransmitter
substance, norepinephrine, from sympathetic nerve tissue. This neural blocking results in relaxation of
the vessels and output of the heart, with subsequent reduction in blood
pressure. Drug therapy can now control
about 80% of all cases of hypertension.
Drugs do not cure, salt and meat elimination diets are necessary, but
drug control of this disease marks a tremendous change in the outlook for
patients whose inflexible fate until 1950 was a stroke, heart failure, or
kidney failure (Elvin-Lewis ’77).
Blood supplying
the heart muscle comes entirely from two coronary (heart) arteries, both lying
along the outside surface of the heart.
If one of these arteries or any part of one suddenly becomes blocked the
portion of the heart being supplied by the artery dies. The death of a portion of the heart muscle is
called a heart attack. The amount of the
heart affected by the sudden occlusion will depend on the severity of this
attack and will determine whether the individual dies or survives. If the heart continues to function, the dead
portion is eventually walled off as new vascular tissue supplies the needed
blood to adjacent areas. Cerebral
thrombosis results when a blood clot bocks a cerebral vessel that has been
narrowed by atherosclerotic deposits. Cerebral hemorrhage is bleeding of a
vessel into the brain. Progressive cerebrovascular sclerosis
occurs when arteries supplying the brain are progressively narrowed, resulting
in chronic cerebrovascular insufficiency and giving rise to dizziness,
transient paralysis, forgetfulness and senility. Atherosclerosis is the underlying cause,
either by weakening the artery walls with subsequent rupture and bleeding or by
narrowing of the arteries predisposing to sudden occlusion by blood clots. Atherosclerosis
or Arteriosclerosis “hardening of the
arteries is characterized by the accumulation in the inner wall of the arteries
of fatty substances that progressively decrease the size of the lumen. The fatty deposits are called atheromas and
appear as raised yellowish plaques.
Diseases result when bleeding around
a plaque causes a clot to form, blocking the flow of blood, or when the
walls weakened by such deposits eventually rupture, called an aneuryism (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 178, 196, 191, 177, 178).
Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the heart muscle that is not
necessarily infectious. Sedentary activity must be balanced with a daily exercise
routine. Besides being a sedentary
activity computers, televisions and microwaves emit radiation. CD-ROM drives on computers emit a lot of
radiation and can be hi-jacked and sabotaged to emit enough radiation,
particularly when you are working late to meet a deadline, to trigger the 100
milliSievert (mSv) threshold of cardio-sensitivity to radiation sickness, 1 Sv
or greater is enough to make you vomit.
Please remove the CD-ROM Drive from your computer, or get a
netbook. Purple
spiderwort turns from blue to pink a few weeks after exposure to as little as
1.5 mSv. HA-3-6-11. Pericarditis may
result from numerous conditions. Septic
thrombophlebitis, often associated with bacteremia, can be an infection of the
cerebral, pelvic, superficial or portal venous systems. When fibrin deposition and thrombus formation
results from perivascular inflammation bacterial invasion of the clot can
occur. Angina pectoris pain occurs when myocardial oxygen consumption
exceeds the capacity of the coronary system to deliver oxygen (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
28).
Coronary
vasodilators act directly but non-selectively on smooth muscles to produce
relaxation without paralyzing the muscle.
Nitrates and nitrites are effective.
Papaverine, from Papaver
somniferum and aminophylline from Camellia
sinensis (tea) also relax smooth muscles and used in the treatment of angina pectoris. Angina pectoris that doesn’t fully go away after a day or two, week, month or year, usually
begins when dead heart muscle from a myocardial infarction (heart attack)
becomes infected with pyogenic organisms.
Antibiotics may be necessary to treat bacterial endocarditis, typically
caused by Streptococcus pyogenes
which causes strep throat in children and a chronic heart condition called
rheumatic heart disease in necrotic heart attack damaged cardiac muscle that
bears a 25 percent chance of dying over 10 years, if untreated by
antibiotics. Over-the years the bacteria
create “vegetations” on atherosclerotic arteries and heart muscle. Even with treatment are prone to
re-infection, for about a month per year of growth, or until the
atherosclerosis and scar tissue has completely dissolved. Bacterial endocarditis results from actual
colonization of the endocardium by infectious agents through the interstitial
capillary bed beneath the endothelium and the blood within the endo-cardial
lumen. When pyogenic organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumonia are involved,
acute endocarditis may result. The onset
is abrupt, the illness may last up to 6 weeks without antibiotics. Organisms most commonly recovered from such
infections are Streptococcus sanguis,
S. faecalis, and in heroin addicts,
also Candida parapsilosis. Bactroides
fragilis, from as far away as the large intestine, can be involved, and
there is definitely a connection between diet and the heart (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
178, 28). All of the bacterial species
that infect the heart are easily treated with a week course of any
broad-spectrum antibiotic. Echovirus is
an entero and respiratory infection that also attacks the heart although there
is not yet any medicine it responds well to Human Immune Globulin IV.
The risk of heart
attack is four times greater to a man in his fifties than to one in his
thirties, and greatest among men in the 50 to 60 year age group. An important difference in the sexes exists,
the disease is very rare in women before menopause, although after menopause
the incidence is just as great as for men.
This near immunity is unexplained, but it is thought to be related in
some way to the protection afforded by estrogenic secretions, which inhibit the
formation of atheromas. The cardinal
risk factors for coronary disease in the United States are hypercholesterolemia,
hypertenstion, and cigarette smoking, especially when these factors are present
in combination. Modified nutritional
habits of high-risk American men, substituting diets moderate in calories, total
fat, and carbohydrate, low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and simple sugars
reduced heart disease mortality by about one-half and the sudden death rate was
only one-fourth as great, and total mortality was lower by 40%. In a study of coronary heart disease in seven
countries only the concentration of cholesterol in the blood proved to be the
outstanding risk factor within and between national groups. As these data indicate, Japanese men have the
lowest incidence of coronary heart disease of any industrialized nation, they
smoke heavily and they have high blood pressure, but they eat a low cholesterol
diet. The death rate from heart disease
is 300% higher in cigarette smokers than in non-smokers in the United
States. Curiously, the effects of
cigarette smoking are equivocal: the practice is not related statistically to
heart disease among, for example, Japanese men who smoke heavily. Reasons for an increased risk include lowered
ability of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide, toxicity form nicotine
(which makes the heart beat faster and causes small arteries to narrow thereby
increasing blood pressure and the work load on the heart). Obesity (10-20%)
above ideal weight adds to the work load of the heart and is to be
avoided. Lack of regular daily exercise
is a factor in coronary disease. Men
engaging in heavy physical work seem to have a significantly lower death rate
from coronary disease than more sedentary job holders (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 179,
182, 183).
Eating the standard American diet that’s based on meat and dairy
products, with plenty of white flour and white sugar, one-third of the women
and one-half of the men in the US population die of heart disease. Meanwhile, vegetarians and vegans
(vegetarians who consume no dairy products or eggs) not only have far less
heart disease, but also have lower rates of cancer, hypertension, diabetes,
gallstones, kidney disease and obesity.
Not only is mortality from coronary artery disease lower in vegetarians
than non-vegetarians, but vegetarian diets have been successful in arresting coronary
artery disease. The daily intake of cholesterol by non-vegetarians is 300-500
mg/daily, lacto-ovo-vegetarians 150-300 mg/ daily and vegans zero, their
cholesterol levels were 210, 161 and 133 respectively, safe levels of
cholesterol are less than 150. The ideal
ratio of total cholesterol to HDL (high-density lipoproteins) is 3.0 to 1 or
lower, the average American male’s ratio is 5.1 to 1 and the average
vegetarian’s ratio, on the other hand, is 2.9 to 1. When it comes to heart disease the evidence
is against animal products. Vegans live
on average six to ten years longer than the rest of the population and in fact
seem to be healthier on every measurement we have of assessing health outcomes. The risk of dying during bypass surgery 4.6 –
11.9 percent, the risk of permanent brain damage from bypass surgery 15-44
percent. Recipients of bypass surgery
for whom it prolongs life is 2 percent.
The risk of death during angioplasty 0.4 – 2.8 percent and the risk of
major complications developing during angioplasty 10 percent. Studies that have found that angioplasty
prolongs life or prevents heart attacks zero. Patients undergo bypass and
angioplasty operations primarily to relive angina and improve blood flow to the
heart. Yet there is a 25 to 50 percent
likelihood that within six months their blood vessels will again be blocked,
and their chest pain will recur, assuming they continue to eat an animal
product-based diet (Robbins ’01: 14, 15, 21, 22, 23).
Food of high fat
and sugar content should be avoided.
Cholesterol comes from eating food of animal origin, when ingested in
the form of fat, this substance is absorbed form the intestinal tract,
converted in the liver, and added to the total amount of cholesterol already
circulating in the serum. When the
amount of cholesterol becomes high, arteries begin to show an increase in fatty
deposits. A healthy person can tolerate
6 ounces of liquor over a one hour period, but more than this amount rapidly
weakens muscle contraction and can lead to alcoholic myocarditis. The risk of developing myocardial infarction
is about twice as great for heavy coffee drinkers as it is for individuals who
drink no coffee at all. Elevated blood
pressure, stress may increase serum cholesterol thereby causing atherosclerosis. The use of oral contraceptives involves an
increased risk of clotting disorders, increases hypertension and thrombotic
strokes and sharply increases the risk of stroke when cigarette smoking is also
practiced. Excessive licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) ingestion for
example can lead to cardiac dysfunction and severe hypertension. Vitamin E deficiency is also implicated in
heart disease, and homogenized milk may be involved in atherosclerosis and
other cardiovascular disease.
“Everything I enjoy in life” runs the ancient lament, “is either
illegal, immoral or fattening” (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 181, 182). For healing to occur necrotic scarred heart tissue must be dissolved and absorbed by blood
stream and this can only happen if animal products, fats and cholesterol are
completely avoided and cardiovascular activity is minimally athletic – 10k run
or four hours of walking or yoga daily.
Two meals of rice, lentils or beans and vegetables (not rice and beans,
or beans and corn which make a complete protein, that is too large to pass
extremely clogged arteries, and should not be more than 10 to 20 percent of a
healthy person’s diet) and one or two of fruit and whole grain in large
portions to get 1,500-2,000 calories a day without going nuts. No animal products, no pain.
Congestive heart
failure (CHF) is a constellation of problems rather than a specific
disease. It means that the heart is not
functioning properly, so that blood is not being pumped around the body
efficiently. The end result is that your
tissues are not receiving adequate blood supply to meet their needs. People with heart failure frequently suffer
from fatigue. They also tire easily when
exerting themselves, because decreased pumping action form the heart does not
deliver enough blood to the leg muscle during walking or other exercise (Wilson
’06: 33). The miraculous affects of Digitalis purpurea against congestive
heart failure and of Rauvolfia against hypertension were among the great
medical advances of the eighteenth and twentieth centuries. However both substances had long histories of
use in domestic medicine before their rediscovery by researchers and
incorporation into orthodox medical practice.
Digitalis slows the wildly
beating ventricles to a normal level by blocking or delaying the conduction of
the electric impulse through the atrioventricular node. By increasing the heart stroke, Digitalis increases the amount of blood
being oxygenated by the lungs, as well as the blood in general circulation, by
as much as 30% with each beat. Because
of this improved action of the heart and circulation, the drug tends to improve
renal secretion to relieve edema, and to aid the cardiac muscle to compensate
for mechanical defects or structural lesions.
More than 3 million cardiac sufferers in the United States routinely use
the glycoside digoxin from D. lanata,
and this is but one of six glycosides from Digitalis
prescribed today. Digitalis whole
leaf, digitoxin, digoxin, lanatoside C, acetyldigitoxin and deslanoside. Since the effective dose may be as high as
70% of the toxic dose, administration must be done carefully on an individual
basis. Various Digitalis glycosides, all
taken orally, include D. purpurea
whole powdered leaf, containing a large number of glycosides of which about 30
are identified besides the medicinally important digitoxin, gitaloxin, and
gitoxin. The average concentration of
these three glycosides in a leaf is 0.16%.
Recently it has been recommended the use of whole leaf preparations over
isolated glycosides. Cardiac glycosides
bring only temporary relief and must be administered orally during the whole
course of the disease. Adverse reactions
are found in about 20% of hospitalized patients receiving Digitalis preparations. By
chance patients being treated for malaria with Cinchona bark containing quinine
and other alkaloids were found to be free of arrhythmias. Subsequent investigation proved that quinine
and more importantly quinidine, regulated atrial fibrillation and flutter. In fact, quinidine will suppress abnormal
rhythms in any chamber of the heart. Allocryptopine from Fagara coca controls atrial arrhythms and is said to be more
effective quinidine. Heparin, a natural
anticoagulant in blood, is commercially available from animal sources,
especially beef lung. Hemorrhage due to
overdose of anticoagulants may be controlled quickly by the administration of
vitamin K (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 183, 184, 186, 187, 189, 193, 194, 190, 191
192). Red
Clover (Trifolium pretense) has blood
thinning properties and should not be used by those who are taking heart
medication or who have any type of blood-thinning problem. Discontinue red clover for 2 weeks before and
after surgery (Glastar ’12). Coumadin
(Warfarin) is another bloodthinner with many contraindications. Prescription cardiac drugs are consistently
the second leading cause of fatal drug overdose reported by the annual report
of the National Association of Poison Control Centers (2010-11).
Herbal Remedies
for Cardiovascular Conditions
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin
E |
Antioxidant,
regulation of oxidation reactions, supports cell membrane stabilization. Found in polyunsaturated plant oils
(soybean, corn and canola oils), wheat germ, sunflower seeds, tofu, avocado
and sweet potatoes. |
|
Vitamin
K |
Synthesis of blood-clotting
proteins, regulates blood calcium Found in Brussels sprouts, leafy green
vegetables, spinach, broccoli and cabbage. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Selenium |
Antioxidant.
Works with vitamin E to protect body from oxidation. Found in grains. |
|
Culinary Herb |
Indication |
|
Cayenne Capsicum annuum and related Peppers
and Chiles |
Warming, improves circulation, is used in
heart tonic, lowers cholesterol, analgesic, decongestant. May irritate heart or cause heartburn in
some patients. |
|
Garlic Allium sativum |
Garlic helps to maintain healthy blood
cholesterol and prevent blood platelet aggregation, making it the herb of
choice for many circulatory issues and lowers blood sugar levels in Type 2
diabetes |
|
Ginger Zingiber officinale |
Ginger lowers blood level triglycerides
linked to diabetes and heart disease. |
|
Rhododendrum caucasium |
Antioxidant, blocks carcinogen absorption
and 20% of fat absorption through intestines.
Increases energy in heart muscles and uric acid excretion. Relaxes blood vessels, lowers blood pressure. |
|
Rosemary Rosmarinus offinalis |
Rosemary is a circulatory stimulant useful
for the treatment of poor circulation and low blood pressure. |
|
Sage Salvia officinalis |
Sage is a superb aid in the digestion of
rich, fatty meat. It also lowers
cholesterol levels and is a bitter tonic for the liver. It rebuilds vitality and strength during
long-term illness. Sage tea is a
warming, bracing drink, nice mixed with mint or rosemary and lemon balm. |
|
Hawthorne Crataegus laevigata |
Hawthorn is considered the herb supreme for
the heart. The berries, leaves and
flowers are rich in bioflavonoids, antioxidants, and procanidins, which feed
and tone the heart. Hawthorn works in
part by dilating the arteries and veins, enabling blood to flow more freely
and releasing cardiovascular constrictions and blockages. It strengthens the heart muscle while
helping to normalize and regulate blood pressure. It also helps maintain healthy cholesterol
levels. Hawthorn is outstanding both
to prevent heart problems and to treat high or low blood pressure, heart
disease, edema, angina and heart arrhythmia. Hawthorn doesn’t store in the
body and isn’t accumulative in action, it’s important to take on a regular
basis if using as a heart tonic.
Hawthorn also helps to stabilize collagen and support the health and
repair of ligaments, tendons and muscles.
Hawthorn strengthens capillaries and heals bruises. The berries are tasty and often enjoyed in
syrups, jams and jellies or dried infusions. |
|
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis |
Remedy for heart disease (and heartache),
depression and anxiety, nervous disorders and a host of viral and bacterial
infections. Paralesus called lemon
balm the “elixir of life” and Dioscorides used it for “sweetening the
spirit”. In the 1600s herbalist John
Evelyn wrote “balm is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory and
powerfully chasing away melancholy”.
Because it’s so delicious lemon balm is often prepared as tea, but it
is also tasty as a culinary herb.
Lemon balm is considered a thyroid inhibitor, those suffering from
hypothyroidism or low thyroid activity should use it only under the guidance
of a health care practitioner. |
|
Valerian Valeriana officinalis |
Valerian has a tonic effect on the heart and
is especially recommended in cases of irregular heartbeat and anxiety that
affects the heart. It is often
combined infusion with hawthorne berry to treat high blood pressure and
irregular heartbeat. For those people for whom valerian works, it works
well. Some people find it irritating
and stimulating, rather than relaxing.
|
Source:
Gladstar ’12; Brown ’04: 82, 83; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Hawthorne (Crataegus laevigata) is considered the herb supreme for the heart. The berries, leaves and flowers are rich in
bioflavonoids, antioxidants, and procanidins, which feed and tone the
heart. Hawthorn works in part by
dilating the arteries and veins, enabling blood to flow more freely and
releasing cardiovascular constrictions and blockages. It strengthens the heart muscle while helping
to normalize and regulate blood pressure.
It also helps maintain healthy cholesterol levels. Hawthorn is outstanding both to prevent heart
problems and to treat high or low blood pressure, heart disease, edema, angina
and heart arrhythmia. Hawthorn doesn’t store in the body and isn’t accumulative
in action, it’s important to take on a regular basis if using as a heart
tonic. Hawthorn also helps to stabilize
collagen and support the health and repair of ligaments, tendons and
muscles. Hawthorn strengthens
capillaries and heals bruises. The berries are tasty and often enjoyed in
syrups, jams and jellies or dried infusions.
The best strategy to procure hawthorne involves harvesting some of the
flowers and enough berries to make pancakes, syrups and jams with enough left
over to dry and make hawthornberry tea infusions year round. Other cardiac stimulants and tonics include Apocynum cannabinum (dogbane), Asarum
canadense (American wild ginger) is however not
a highly recommended substitute for Zingiber
officinale, Asclepia spp (milkweeds), Crateagus tomoentosa (hawthorn), Euonymus atropurpureus (wahoo or burning
bush), Heuchera spp. (alum root) Ilex
opaca (American Holly), Ipomoea
leptophylla (bush morning glory), Monarda
spp. (horsemint), Veratrum californicum (hellebore),
Veratrum viride (green hellebore),
and Viola spp. (violet) (Elvin-Lewis
’77: 192).
VIII. Oral Health
The oral cavity
contains the teeth and its supporting structures, the gums (gingiva),
surrounded by the periodontium and alveolar bone of the jaw. The roof of the mouth is known as the hard
palate and posterior to this the soft palate; these and the inner tissues of
the cheek are lines with oral mucosa.
The tongue (having taste buds on its surgace) is a muscle that aids in
talking and swallowing. We acquire our
first set of teeth during the first year of life, and begin to lose them, prior
to replacement with the permanent set, from 6 years of age onward. It is now generally accepted that at a
concentration of 1 ppm fluoride in the water supply not only strengthens the
apatite of teeth by increasing the rate of maturation of the enamel surface but
reduces enamel solubility, favors formation of hydroxyl-apatite crystal
structure during dissolution and remineralization of enamel, and exerts an
effect on the growth of the organisms or their cariogenic potential by blocking
bacterial enzymes. The practice of using the toothbrush and toothpaste
originates from populations who once cleaned their teeth by using equivalents
of toothbrushes (chewing sticks) or such forms of mechanical plaque removers as
chewing gum or bark. In vast parts of
the world where tooth brushing is uncommon, the practice of tooth cleaning by
chewing sticks has been known since antiquity.
The precise method for use of these implements recorded by the
Babylonians in 5000 BC and the fashion ultimately spread throughout the Greek
and Roman empires and elsewhere. In
China sticks were fashioned into ornate toothpicks, and the counterpart to the
modern toothbrush was devised by the Chinese in the fifteenth century. American Indians cleaned their teeth with
fibrous plant materials (quids) sinews, bones and toothpicks. The wood of the Cornus florida (Dogwood) is much used by
Dentists, as the young branches stripped of their bark, and rubbed with their
ends against the teeth, render them extremely white. Muhammed said, that “the
Siwak (chewing stick) is an implement for the cleansing of teeth and a pleasure
to God” (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 226, 227, 228, 229).
Diet plays an important role in controlling high disease such as
dental caries. Those who have high
counts of decay causing bacteria probably have too much sucrose (sugar) in
their diet. The ingestion of sugar is the culprit in the development of
caries. Prehistoric man had very little
caries, only 2 to 4 percent of the teeth examined from the remains of humans before
the Iron Age revealed decay. Our early
ancestor’s diet was not conducive to caries. It consisted of fibrous foods,
which require a lot of chewing and stimulate the production of saliva which
helps wash away bacteria and food debris.
The grains they are were coarse ground and contained calcium and several
phosphates, substances that assist in remineralizing enamel after an acid
attack. The milling and refining
processes of flours today remove these nutrients. Through the Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Medieval
periods, the incidence of caries hovered at about 10 percent. The rate remained constant until the end of
the seventeenth century when, with the development and distribution of sugar
cane, it began its steady rise. Queen
Elizabeth I’s infected teeth, which eventually led to her death, were a result
of her fondness for sweets and her ability to obtain them, given her position
and wealth. When slavery furnished the
“free” labor, British supply ships made sugar widely available. By 1850 sugar was eaten by most of the
population, and the incidence of caries mushroomed. Both the consumption of sugar and the rate of
caries continued to rise until the 1950s and 60s. At this time, fluoride was added to municipal
and school water supplies and toothpastes and the rate of caries began to
decline. An exception to the increase in
caries occurred in Europe during World War II when sugar was restricted because
of naval blockade. Today 95 percent of
people have dental caries (HA-14-2-12:
31, 32). No sugar, no pain.
Billions of
microbes live in your mouth. Probiotics
may improve oral health. A study done in
Turkey found that subjects who ate yogurt containing Bifidobacterium DN-173 010 once daily had fewer cavity-causing
bacteria in their mouths than a control group who ate yogurt that had been
treated to kill all the probiotic bacteria.
apanee researchers found that consumption of Lactobacillus reuteri in yogurt lowered the numbers of both
cavity-and odor-producing bacteria in the mouth (Huffnagle ’07: 195). Like most other mammals, humans have two sets of teeth, the primary
and the permanent. Humans have twenty baby (primary) teeth and thirty-two adult
(permanent) teeth. About 20 of the 300
or so different types of bacteria that have been found in the mouth are
associated with specific types of periodontal disease. Most of the bacteria associated with
periodontal diseases are anaerobic, meaning they survive without oxygen. Caries is a destructive infectious disease
instigated by bacteria, which is often communicable. For caries to develop, three things have to
be present: specific bacteria, fermentable carbohydrates for them to feed on,
and a tooth surface that is susceptible to the products that bacteria
form. The most cariogenic (caries-producing)
bacterial species Streptococcus mutans,
which feeds on the sugars in foods, is the primary organism involved. It
releases lactic, formic and other acids, some of which are capable of
dissolving the enamel on the teeth, beginning the disease process. Other organisms play lesser roles: Lactobacilli are associated with caries
of the pits and fissures on the biting surfaces and Actinomyces with root caries. Most children acquire the S. mutans infection between 19 and 28
months of age, 83 percent are infected by the age of four years (Smith ’97: 81,
87, 88). If the root area is invaded,
causing abscesses, the infection may spread throughout the body. In addition to Streptococcus, organisms of Actinomyces,
Rothia and Arthrobacter predominate in caries of both root and crevicular
areas. Antibiotic resistant yeast Candida albicans is a common oral
infection that can become extremely painful long before the white “thrush” can
be seen in the cheeks. (Lewis &
Elvin-Lewis ’77: 226-228).
Carbohydrates, sugars and to a lesser degree starches, enhance the
colonization and growth of bacteria in dental plaque. Sucrose is the most cariogenic sugar, with
glucose (found in honey, fruits and vegetables) fructose (in honey and fruits)
and maltose (in grains) close behind.
Fermented sugars quickly produce acids that can overcome the rate at
which saliva neutralizes them to destroy the enamel of the tooth. When starches accumulate on teeth, the enzyme
amylase in saliva can convert them to sugars, which produce the acids that
initiate decay. About ten minutes after
eating food that contains sugar, the pH of the plaque that adhered to the tooth
drops, often below the threshold of 5.5 at which enamel begins to demineralize. A pH of 7.0 is neutral. Below 7.0 is acid, above 7.0 alkaline. The plaque will remain acidic for up to an
hour. After this, components in the
saliva neutralize the acids, and the destruction of the enamel starts to
reverse. When sugary foods are eaten at
frequent intervals throughout the day, the enamel is constantly exposed to
acids with little opportunity for demineralization to reverse. To enhance remineralization, many researchers
advocate a three-hour hiatus between eating foods with sugar. In general, food containing over 15 to 20
percent sugar is highly cariogenic. Eat
carbohydrates, sugars and starches with a meal.
Don’t eat sugary foods alone or between meals. Chew sugarless gum if you can’t brush. Although lactose alone is moderately
cariogenic, milk products with it contain casein, a phosphoprotein, which may
prevent bacteria from adhering to the tooth.
Studies have revealed that older persons who had no root caries reported
a high intake of milk and cheese. Saliva
is instrumental in keeping caries at bay by washing away food particles and
bacteria (also cancer-causing components in tobacco smoke) and by neutralizing
acids generated from fermentable carbohydrates to maintain a near-neutral pH.
In addition saliva is supersaturated with phosphate, hydroxyl ions, and calcium,
all ingredients of tooth mineral that play a role in reversing early carious
lesions by remineralizing the enamel (HA-14-2-12: 31, 32).
There are four major forms of periodontitis, all of which are associated
with specific strains of bacteria. (1)
Chronic adult periodontitis directly related to deposits of plaque and
tartar. Faulty, large or numerous
restorations and teeth that are issuing or out of alignment contribute to the
retention of plaque and can make an adult more prone to developing this form of
periodontitis. (2) Prepubertal
periodontitis is found in fewer than 1 percent of children. Juvenile periodontitis occurring ages 11-13
is most associated with the bacteria Actinobacillus
actinomycetermcomitans. (3) Rapidly
progressive periodontitis that affects people older than twenty is usually
associated with Porphyromonas gingivalis
and Bacteroides forsythus. (4) Refractory periodontitis includes the
antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria, five percent of treated patients do
not benefit from. The traditional way of detecting periodontal disease s to
insert a manual probe between the gum and the root surface of the tooth to
determine whether the gum is losing its attachment to the tooth. If attachment has been lost, the depth of the
pocket increases. The dentist then
checks whether and how much the tooth can be moved, whether the gums bleed when
they are probed, and whether the gum margin has receded. In general, the measurements of pocket depth
listed correlate with the following periodontal conditions. Carafate
(Sucralfate) is effective for duodenal and mouth ulcers in conjunction with a
broad spectrum of antibiotics. It is
highly advised to consume several billion probiotic organisms every time you
take antibiotics and for two weeks afterwards to repopulate with probiotic
microflora. Cavities are a direct
consequence of antibiotic use, because antimicrobials kill the probiotic Lactobacillus strains which in nature
helps to keep bad bacterial strains such as Streptococcus
mutans and Candida albicans under
control. Antibiotic altered microflora
make the teeth particularly vulnerable to cavities (Huffnagle
’07). Take probiotics daily during and
for two weeks after consuming antibiotics and eliminate sugar from the
diet.
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or
"dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the
structures of teeth. The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and,
in severe cases, death. Today caries are one of the most common diseases
throughout the world. In total, more than 95 percent of adults in the United
States are afflicted with dental caries.
Between 6 and 18 years of age, approximately 75 to 90 percent of
children have some kind of malocclusion. Among children in the United States
and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population. Twenty-five percent of Americans are
without any natural teeth when they die.
Teeth infected with caries may no longer jeopardize life as they did
before antibiotics, but they compromise its quality. Left untreated, caries can cause excruciating
pain and result in loss of teeth. This
affects how we look and feel about ourselves, our ability to chew and speak,
and occasionally even how well-nourished we are. Treating caries and its consequences with
restorations, crowns, bridges, dentures, root canal therapy, and implants
consumes a substantial percentage of the personal expenditures that are spent
on dental services, which were almost $41 billion in the United States in 1994
(Smith ’97: 9, 149, 150, 86). Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of
various bacteria that form on teeth. If not removed regularly, plaque buildup
can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as
gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar.
A process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. When the pH drops below 5.5 at
the tooth surface, the calcium phosphate in the apatite of the enamel surface
dissolves. When 30 percent of the
calcium is lost the teeth decay. Saliva gradually neutralizes the acids which
cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes
'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If
there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited
and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through
plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria. Dental health
organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular
oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries. No sugar, no pain.
The total incidence of oral cancers is about 50,000 cases per year
with 8,000 deaths. Surgeries to remove
some of these cancers are traumatic and destroy the victim’s quality of life
(Jerome ’00: 402). In the United States men between the ages of 40 and 65 have
the highest rate of oral cancers. The
most common sites are the lip, the floor of the mouth and the lateral
tongue. Oral cancer makes up between 2
and 5 percent of all cancers. For a number of reasons, including the loss of
teeth, dependence on caregivers, and difficulty getting to appointments, many
older persons do not routinely visit the dentist. As a result, they miss regular screenings for
oral cancer. In general, if you have any
sore in or around your mouth that does not heal within 10 to 14 days, you
should have it checked by your dentist. Pain and numbness develop later. Between 70 and 90 percent of oral cancers are
squamous cell carcinomas. They are
treated most often surgically by a head and neck cancer specialist. In many instances surgery is followed with radiation
therapy and chemotherapy. In 1991 20
percent of high-school-aged boys either chewed tobacco or placed it in their
cheeks. An eightfold increase from 15
years earlier before smoking areas were abolished. Chronic users have 50 times the risk of developing
cancers of the gums and lower lip, 4 times the chance of developing oral cancer
and an increased risk of developing high blood pressure, heart attacks, kidney
disease, and strokes. Smokeless tobacco
can erode the enamel of teeth and irritate the gums, cause them to whiten and
recede. A variety of white blood cell,
whose function is to destroy harmful bacteria, is found in the blood. Leukemia is a group of cancers that affect
the blood. Both the condition and the
powerful chemicals and drugs used to treat it can cause oral changes, including
swelling, inflammation and bleeding of the gums, candidiasis, and lesions in
the soft tissues of the mouth. Patients whose leukemia is in remission can
receive dental treatment, although the clotting time of the blood should be
tested before scaling or surgery and antibiotics used pre-op. Leukopenia
results from drugs, radiation or disease where there is an abnormal decrease in
the numbers of one or all kinds of white blood cells. As a consequence, the individual is
susceptible to infection and may warrant premedication with antibiotics. Radiation that is used to treat cancers of
the head and neck can cause a number of acute and chronic dental problems – it
can destroy the salivary glands so that the mouth is very dry, swallowing
becomes difficult, and dental caries is rampant, mucositis, candidiasis,
sensitivity of the teeth, loss of taste, and damage to the bone (Smith ’97:
201, 202, 171).
Herbal Remedies
for Toothache
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin
A (retinol) |
Supports vision,
skin, bone and tooth growth and immunity.
Found in mango, broccoli, butternut squash, carrots, tomato juice,
sweet potatoes, pumpkin and beef liver. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Calcium |
Formation of bones
and teeth, supports blood clotting.
Found in milk, yogurt, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheese, tofu, sardines,
green beans, spinach and broccoli. |
|
Phosphorus |
Formation of cells,
bones and teeth, maintains acid-base balance.
Found in all animal foods (meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk). |
|
Fluoride |
Involved in the
formation of bones and teeth, helps to make teeth resistant to decay. Found in fluoridated drinking water, tea
and seafood. |
|
Culinary Herb |
Indication |
|
Pistachio |
|
|
Sage Salvia officinalis, 750 Salvia spp. |
Sage is the classic remedy for inflammation of the mouth, throat,
tonsils and laryngitis. It can be used
as a mouthwash or swab to treat infected or sore gums and canker sores. |
|
Thyme common; garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris and/or lemon thyme (T. citriodorus). |
Thyme is a powerful disinfectant and can be used both externally (as
a wash) and internally to help fight off infection. It’s often used to ward off colds and as a
rinse to treat sore throat and oral infections. |
|
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis |
Mouth washes for sore mouths and gums, |
|
Peppermint Mentha piperata |
Peppermint also has anodyne properties useful for reducing the pain
of headaches, bee stings, burns and even toothache. |
|
Probiotics |
All probiotic strains of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Saccharomyces boulardii are useful in
controlling tooth infection in conjunction with antiobitics which cause
cavities as the result of chronic shortages of slow-growing probiotic
bacteria, primarily Lactobacillus
spp. in the mouth. |
Source:
Gladstar ’12, Huffnagle ’07: 263; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
A wide variety of
plants, with analgesic or counterirritant properties, have been used throughout
the world to treat toothache. Fagara
(Ruaceae) bark or leaf is chewed for relief.
Euphorbiaceae latex is placed
in the hollow of carious teeth for relief.
Fabaceae is used in the
preparation of gargles and moutwashes. Asteraceae, acts as local anesthetic
chewed. Latex fillings that serve as
temporary fillings for prepared tooth cavities are made from numerous
sapotaceous trees such as Palaquium
ahernianum (Philippines), P. gutta
(Malaya), P. oxleyanum (Malaya), Payena leerii(Burma), P. obscura (Malaya), Sideroxylon attenuatum (India,
Phlippines), S. kaernbachianum (New
Guinea) Pistacia lentiscus (pistachio
tree, Turkey), Eugenia caryophyllata. Normally teeth are extracted surgically but
in folkremedy they can be removed readily if treated with plant materials such
as the celandine poppy (Chelidonium majus),
Chlorophora tinctoria (Moraceae), Jura crepitans (Euphorbiaceae), Ximenia Americana (Olacaceae) and Acacia pinnata (Fabaceae). Oral lesions
or symptoms are associated with diseases producing clinical symptoms elsewhere
in the body. Among these are the
bacterial infections causing syphilis, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
plague, glanders, diphtheriea, leprosy, sporotrichosis, and lumphogranuloma
venereum, the viral infections causing varicella-zoster (chicken pox-
shingles), infectious mononucleosis, burkitt’s lymphoma, nasopharyngeal
carcinoma, foot and mouth disease, herpangina, hand foot and mouth disease,
acute nodular pharyngitis, vesicular stomatitis, rabies, measles, rubella,
influenza, common cold, and mumps, the fungal infections causing
histoplasmosis, South American blastomycosis, coccidiomycosis, and the
parasitic diseases of leishmanieasis, gonglyonema and trichinosis. Specific antibiotic therapy is used for
bacterial and fungal infections, surgery or chemotherapeutic agents for the
parasitic diseases and supportive therapy, where possible, for viral infections
of the mouth (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 248, 249, 259, 266). One significant consequence of antibiotic
resistance is cavities, due to uncontrolled growth of cariogenic bacteria and
yeast without the presence of a healthy population of slow growing probiotic Lactobacillus spp. Furthermore frustrating vegan patients who
are doing everything they can to get well the mineral Phosphorus maintains the
acid-base balance needed for healthy teeth but is found only in animal
products. Probiotic and Phosphorus
deficiencies can be corrected with dietary supplements.
‘
IX.
Gastrointestinal
Health
The digestive
system comprises the mouth, liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, ileococal
valve, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, small intestines
and sigmoid colon. The 35 million glands
lining the walls of the stomach secrete up to 80fl oz (3.5l) of gastric juice
(mainly hydrochloric acid) per day in order to prepare food for entry into the
duodenum – the first part of the small intestine. The liver is the largest organ in the body
and i an adult weights between 2.6 and 4 lb (1.2 and 1.8 kg). It lies in the right side of the upper
abdomen, and stores bile in the gallbladder.
The pancreas is about 6 in (15 cm) long and lies behind the stomach and
in front of the spine. It performs two
important functions: it produces blood sugar, which is fuel for the cells, and
it produces insulin, which regulates the level of blood sugar in the body. The first part of the intestinal tract is the
small intestine made up of the duodenum, about 10 in (25 cm) long, the jejunum,
about 8 ft (2.4 m) long and the ileum, about 12 ft (3.6 m) long. Next is the large intestine, which although
wider than the small intestine, is considerably shorter – only about 5ft (1.5
m) long in total. The large intestine is
divided into the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colons. Any material that the intestines cannot
process, such as dead bacteria, lubricating mucus, and rough, fibrous material
that cannot be absorbed, is passed through the anus and out of the body
(Gillanders ’95: 42).
According to
government statistics, 60 to 70 million Americans suffer from digestive
diseases. Each year, problems with the
digestive tract prompt 45 million doctor visits and send 14 million to the
hospital, millions more wind up at thei local pharmacy, where shelves are
stocked with products that promise relief for gas, indigestion, diarrhea, or
constipation. Gastrointestinal disease
accounts for about 10% of all illness, as well as 10% of general practitioner consultations,
8.5% of prescriptions and 8.3% of the cost of inpatient treatment. It is responsible 8.8% of days of certified
incapacity to work and 10% of all deaths.
Probiotics offer the hope of treatments that are effective and
affordable. Chronic inflammatory
conditions of the large and small intestines known as Inflammatory Bowel
Disease (IBD) can be debilitating – diarrhea, abdominal pain and
exhaustion. The two most common types of
IBD are ulverative colitis and Crohn’s disease.
Over one million Ameicans suffer from IBD. The condition can affect anyone, from
children to the elderly, but it usually begins before age 30. IBD is an autoimmune condition. It starts when the immune system mistakes
normal digestive tract bacteria for dangerous microbes and attacks them. As a result, blood flows to the area and an
inflammatory process begins. Helper T
cells and phagocytes, releae chemcals designed to destroy nicrobial enemies,
but in IBD, they also damage the intestingal lining, sometimes creating ulcers. The damage amplifies the call for blood,
producing more inflammation and more damage to the bowel. The problem is exacerbated if the normal
bacteria they’re targeting remain in the microflora or are constantly
reintroduced. No matter how much tissue
is destroyed, the immune system persists in the trying to eliminate what it
perceives as a microbial invader.
Regulatory T cells fail to respond appropriately in IBD. The inflammation of IBD often can be brought
under control with anti-inflammatory drugs, such as prednisone, a
corticosteroid, in a matter of days.
However, if used for a prolonged period, corticosteroids can cause
Cushing’s syndrome, which produces significant effects on health and appearance
because it causes people to retain water and gain weight. Their faces become round and puffy, with
associated swelling in the neck, upper back and abdomen. Women may develop excess facial and body
hair, acne and other skin problems are common.
Other side effects include muscle wekness in the arms and legs, fragile
bones, high blood sugar, fatigue and mood swings. Corticosteroids are not recommended for long
term use. Antiobitics help relieve IBD
because they eliminate the intestinal microbes which the immune system is
reacting and symptoms often return in full force after antibiotics are
discontinued. The intestinal microflora
repopulates and the immune system again launches its unnecessary attack aginst
them (Huffnagle ’07: 110, 111, 113).
Relief of
gastrointestinal disorders emphasize gastric antacids, indigestion, digestive
stimulation, antispasmodics, emetics, antiemetics, purgatives, antidiarrheal
agents, infectious diarrheas, liver, anthelmintics, amebicides, hemorrhoids,
and carminatives. Excessive secretion of
hydrochloric acid or hyperacidity can lead to ulcerations of the stomach and
duodenum. Common neutralizing agents for
excessive acid may be prescribed: sodium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, and
magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) are a few examples. A natural remedy used by North American
Indians was hops (Humulus lupulus). Upset digestion (dyspepsia, heartburn)
centers around a burning or tight feeling in the chest, belching and a cramped
or bloated sensation in any part of the abdomen. Antacids and carminatives can alleviate this
distress. A number of plants are used in
folk medicine to relieve indigestion: Betulaceae, Alnus rubra (red alder), A.
rugosa (hazel alder); Combretaceae, Terminalia
bellirica, Rasaceae, Rubus
macropetalus (dewberry); Saxifragaceae, Hydrangea
arborescens (smooth hydrangea). Ancient Eguptians, who thought that all
disease came from food, believed that a purge was needed three times a
month. Castor oil (Ricinus communis) mixed with beer was their standard laxative. Amongh the Greeks and Romans Alo barbadensis was highly regarded
laxative and Dioscorides and Celsus recommended its use in that application.
However a much more conservative approach was taught by Hippocrates, who
prescribed purgative medicines only sparingly in acute diseases and not without
proper circumspection. A number of
principles stimulate the appetite.
Usually these stomachics are bitter tonics that increase pancreatic
secretion by stimulating the gastric mucous membrane: Apieaceae, Carum carvi (caraway), Araceae, Acorus calamus (sweet flag), Araliaceae,
Panax quinquefolium (American
ginseng), Arecaceae, abal palmetto,
Aristologchiaceae, Aristolochia
serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot), A.
reticulate (Texas snakeroot), Brassicaceae, Brassica juncea, B. nigra,
Sinapic alba (mustards), Cannabaceae,
Humulus lupulus (hops), Gentianaceae,
Gentiana catesbaei, G. lutea, G. macrophylla, G. punctate,
G. purpurea, menyanthes trifoliate (buckbean), sabatia angularis (American centaury), Ranunculaceae, Coptis grownlandica (goldthread),
Rubiaceae, Cinhona spp. (Quinine),
Scrophulariaceae, Picrorhiza hurroa,
Simaroubaceae, Quassia amara (Surinam
quassia) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 272, 273, 271, 273, 274). The probiotics used to
successfully treat IBD in animals are Lactobacillus
reuteri, L. plantarum 299v and L.
rhamnosus GG. Another effective
preventive treatment is a commercial product called VSL#3 which blends either
probiotic bacteria, including species of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, as
well as a probiotic species of Streptococcus. An estimated 25 to 40 percent of
those with ulcerative colitis, and up to 75 percent of those with Crohn’s
disease ,eventually require surgical treatment to widen blocked areas of the
intestines or to excise disease portions (Huffnagle ’07: 114, 115, 116).
Vomiting is a
common symptom having many causes inside and outside the gastrointestinal
tract. The traditional remedy for
vomiting is plain white rice. As soon as
the plain white rice hits the stomach the vomiting stops and the patient
swiftly recovers. One of the most direct
ways for pharmaceutical medicine to prevent vomiting is to inhibit the
hyperactivity of the vomiting center by using anticholinergic drugs. Antihistamines such as Dramamine or hydramine
have mild antiemetic effects. Two
synthetic compounds are the phenothiazines (chlorpromazine, piperazine) and
othopramides (metoclopramide), they work in three minutes. To sooth the stomach there are Aristolochiaceae,
Aristolochia serpentine (Virginia
snakeroot), Nyrtaceae, Eugenia
caryophyllata (clove tree). Lamiaceae, menthe
piperita (peppermint), Monarda
puncata (horsemint), Rosaceae, Rubus
spp. (blackberry and thimbleberry).
Emesis has suffered a decline in popularity during the past
century. Its use now is restricted to
two main areas of treatment, ridding the stomach of irritant and poisonous
substances, and using the unpleasantness of vomiting in aversion therapy. Emesis is of particular value in young
children for the treatment of acute poisoning.
Folk medicine is rampant with extracts from plants widely used to induce
vomiting. Apocynaceae, Apcynum
androsaemifolium (wild ipecac), Aquifoliaceae, Ilex vomitoriua (yaupon), Aseraceae, Anthemis cotula (dog chamomile), Marticaria chamomilla (chamomile), Breassicaceae, Brassica juncea (Chinese mustard),
Campanulaceae, Lobelia inflate
(Indian tobacco), Euphorbiaceae, Euphorbia
ipecacuanha (ipecac spurge), Fabaceae, Pterocarpus
santalinus, Liliaceae, Veratrum album
(Europe), V. viride (eastern North
America), Loganiaceae, Gelsemium
sempervirens (yellow Jessamine), Papaveraceae, Papaver somniferum, Sanguinaria
canadensis (bloodroot), Phytolaccaceae, Phytolacca
americana (poke), Roasaceae, Gillenia
stipulate (American ipecac), Physocarpus
capitatus (ninebark), Rubiaceae, Cephaelis
acuminate, C. ipecacuanha,
Simaroubaceae, Picrasma excels
(Jamaica quassia), Quassia amara
(Surinam quassia), Dirca palustris
(leatherwood), Zygophyllaceae, Guaiacum
officinale (lignum sactum), G.
sanctum (lignum vitae) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 279, 280. 277-279).
The mere presence
of Helicobacter pylori in the stomach
is not enough to cause ulcers. About 20
percent of Americans under the age of 40 and half over age 50 carry the
bacteria, yet most don’t develop the problem.
We know that tte immune system is involved, because ulcers result as an
inflammatory response against H. pylori. Since high levels of H. pylori are required to develop an ulcer, laboratory experiments
have establishe that numerous strains of Lactobacillus,
including L. acidophilus, L. johnsonii,
L.salivarius, and L. casei, can
slow the growth of H. pylori in the
petri dish, and sometimes even kill it. In the early 1980s, two Australian
doctors, J. Robin Warren and Barry J. Marshall, isolated Helicobacter pylori from the stomachs of ulcer patients. But their suggestion that these bacteria
actually caused the ulcers met with general disbelief for more than a
decade. In frustration Dr. Marshall
decided to improve the connection by infecting himself. After undergoing a preliminary examination to
demonstrate that his stomach was healthy, he drank a pure culture of the
bacteria. Five days later he developed
severe gastrointestinal symptoms from gastritis, an inflammation of the stomach
that is associated with ulcers. In 2005,
Drs. Warren and Marshall shared a Nobel Prize for their discovery. Lactobacillus appears to inhibit Helicobacter
growth. Mice fed Lactobacillus
reduced the presence of Helicobacter by
more than 99 percent. Subsequent
research showed that ulcers could be permanently cured with the antibiotic
metrodnidazole (Flagyl ER) that completely eradicates the H. pylori. The standard current treatment for those suffering from
peptic ulcers is called “triple therapy” because it involves a combination of
two antibotics to kill H. pylori,
plus a third medication to either decrease acid production in the stomach or to
protect the stomach from the acids. The
NIH claims it is more than 90 percent effective in patients with ulcers. In children, the success rate is lower,
around 60 percent. Unfortunately, triple
therapy may cause unpleasant side-effects, including nausea, diarrhea,
abdominal pain, taste disturbances, headaches and body aches. In a Czech study 90 percent of those children
whose tiple therapy was supplemented by Actimel. Numerous studies have shown that probiotics,
including Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG,
Saccharomyces boulardii, mixed Lactobacillus species, and various
strains of Bifidobacterium, reduced
the unwated symptoms accompanying triple treatment (Huffnagle ’07: 123, 125,
124, 126).
Until 1965 there
was no drug available to assist in healing the ulcer once developed, rest in
bed, no smoking and bland diets were the only forms of therapy. Now two derivatives of Glycyrrhiza glabra root (common licorice native to Eurasia)
carbenoxolone sodium and deglycyrrhizinized licorice, can on the average reduce
the size of an ulcer by 70 to 90% after one month of treatment. Healing occurs in patients who are not
confined to bed, and many who continue to work during the treatment. Anticholingergic drugs can be used to correct
griping abdominal pain, often called colic, and other symptoms, including
spasms of the stomach and intestines, spastic constipation, spasms of the
bladder and urinary tract due to inflammation, pernicious vomiting of
pregnancy, spasms of the bilary and pancreatic ducts, and excessive salivation
, perspiration, and secretions of the nose, pharynx, and bronchi. In addition fainting due to heart block,
arterial spasms, gangrenous conditions due to damaged and constricted blood
vessels, and other important circulatory problems can be remedied by
antispasmodic drugs. The most important
antispasmodics are: atropine, obtained from Atropa
belladonna, Hyoscyamus muticus, H. niger, Duboisia leichardtii, D.
moposroides, and other solanaceaous species, or produced synthetically,
scopolamine (hyoscine) which is particularly abundant in datura fastuosa, D. metel,
D. Inoxia, D. meteloides, Scopolia
carniolica, and S. japonica and
is usually prepared from material after the removal of hyoscyamine, and
papaverine, the principal benzylisoquinoline derivative of the opium alkaloids
from Papaver somniferum. Native American also used Viburnum prunifolium (black haw), V. rufidulum (southern black haw), V. acerifolium (maple leaved viburnum),
Gentianaceae, Gentiana catesbaei,
Lamiaceae, Mentha piperita
(peppermint), Nepeta cataria
(catnip), Liliaceae, Aletric farinose
(star grass), Ranunculaceae, Hydrastis
candensis (golden seal Xanthorhiza
simplicissima (shrub yellowroot), Salicaceae, Salix humilis (small pussy willow) Zygophyllaceae, Larrea mexicana (greasewood, creosote
bush) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 275, 276, 277).
Metronidazole (Flagyl ER) is effective against H. pylori and other bad bacteria in the small and large intestine,
including antibiotic resistant C.
difficile, and is the standard treatment for antibiotic associated colitis
and all other forms of infectious diarrhea, and unlike other antibiotics tends
not to cause vitamin B12 deficiency.
Infectious
diarrhea, gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the stomach and intestines,
characterized by abdominal distress, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Enteropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli are associated with
infantile diarrhea and Vibrio
parahemolyticus (Japanese raw-fish enteritis). One of the major causes of food poisoning is Clostridium perfringens and its toxins, C. perfringens, strain type F can
produce a rare but more fatal type, enteritis
necroticans. Other outbreaks of food
poisoning have implicated Bacillus cereus
and species of Proteus, Klebsiella, Providencia (Paracolon), Citrobacter,
Psudomonas, Enterobacter, and Actinomyces. When there is suppression of gut flora due to
antibiotic therapy, overgrowth of organisms, such as Staphylococcus aureau. Or Vandida
albivans, Stretococcus faecalis, Psuemonas aeroginosa, and Proeus mirabilis, can result in
enterocolitis or infection of the bowel wall.
Enterocolitis may also be a manifestation of Salmonella, cholera, and Shigella
infections. Cholera, a nonexudative form of acute diarrheal disease, is
characterized by severe bloody diarrhea and dehydration due to the choleragen
endotoxin associated with the etiologic agent, Vibrio cholera. This
endotoxin, stimulates a prolonged increase in capillary permeability, inducing
a basic lesion in the jejunal microcirculation with striking water and ion
fluxes. Prognosis is excellent with
current electrolyte replacement therapy, which involves infusing the patient
with an alkaline saline solution in order to rehydrate him and to correct his
acidosis. Once hydration has been achieved, tetracycline is used to reduce the
number of organisms shed in the stool.
Homeostasis is maintained by infusing solutions at a rate to match the
measured stool volume (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 288). Standard therapy for viral
gastroenteritis involves drinking plenty of fluids and eating easy-to-digest
foods. On average the duration of diarrhea
in studies was reduced 13 hours, from 71 hours to 58 hours, in the group
receiving probiotics. Studies have
confirmed the efficacy of L. rhamnosus GG
and demonstrated that L. rhamnosus
19070-2 and L. reuteri DSM 12246
also reduce the length and severity of viral gastroenteritis in children
(Huffnagle ’07: 126).
Diarrhea is a
common side-effect of antibiotics. These
drugs destroy not only their target germs, but also probiotic bacteria. As a result, certain diarrhea-causing
microbes which are normally kept at harmless levels, can proliferate. One particular form of antiobiotic-associated
diarrhea, caused by the bacterium Clostridium
difficule, can turn serious and even deadly. C.
difficile is usually a nosomoial infection that travels from one patient to
another when toilet and other surfaces become contaminated. An infection can lead to severe dehydration
and a form of colitis that’s life-threatening.
Saccharomyces boulardii,
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and various probiotic mixtures, significantly
reduce the development of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Only S.
boulardii (a probiotic yeast) was effective against C. difficile infections. An estimated 10 million people, or 20 to
50 percent of international travelers, come down with diarrhea, either during
or shortly after their trip. Typcially a
traveler develops symptoms after eating food or drinking water tha tis
contaminated with microbes – bacteria, viruses or parasites – of fecal origin. The most common cause is a type of E. coli called enterotoxigenic E coli.
This bacteria attaches to intestinal cells and releases a toxin that
causes cramping and diarrhea. Treatment
usually involves taking Bactrim (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) or
metronidazole (Flagyl ER). When you
travel to a foreign country you can’t drink the water without risking
gastrointestinal illness, yet the people who live there have no such
problems. The reason appears to be that
their intestinal microflora protects them from developing diarrhea from the
microbes that contaminate water.
However, if natives move away for a long period of time their microflora
changes. Should they return for a visit,
they have the same risk of developing “tourist disease” as any other
traveler. Over a million cases of Salmonella food poisoning occur each
year in the US mostly from contaminated chicken eggs. Its symptoms, which can last for up to a
week, include diarrhea, fever and abdominal cramps. People usually recover without treatment but
it can be fatal in the very young, old and those with impaired immune
systems. In one study of a group of
chickens researchers included the probiotic Lactobacillus
salivarius CTC2197 in the feed and drinking water and a control group
received regular feed. All the birds
were infected with Salmonella. Three weeks later the chickens were examined
and those with regular feed showed evidence of Salmonella growing within them while those chickens that had
received probiotics were Salmonella-free
(Huffnagle ’07: 128, 130, 131, 132).
Antidiarrheal
agents are used to treat diarrhea, an increase in the fluidity and frequency of
stools, one of the most common disorders in man. The causes of diarrhea are numerous: acute
diarrhea results from bacterial and viral enteritis, food and toxin poisoning,
chemical poisoning, and gastrointestinal allergy, chronic diarrhea is caused by
chronic intestinal infections, immunologic and metabolic abnormalities,
environmental factors and the malabsorption syndrome (bile and pancreatic
disorders, genetic abnormalities, etc.)
Whenever possible, the cause should be eliminated or controlled. To restore the normal intestinal flora
following administration of antibacterial drugs, which often results in
diarrhea, lactobacillus cultres (L.
acidophilus, L. bulgaricus) are available for oral therapy. Prolonged use of any antidiarrheal agent is
discouraged. Plants with antidiarrheal
effects are Gymnosperm, Juniperus
virginiana (red cedar), Angiosperms,
Apcynaceae, Alstonia schoaris (chhatim), Vinca
minor (perennial periwinkle), Cacaceae,
Opuntia fulgida (cholla). Evenacea,
Diospyros virginiana (persimmon), Ericaceae,
Vaccinium arboretum (sparkleberry), Fabaceae,
Pterocarpus indicus, P. marsupium (Malabar kino), Facaceae, Quercus alba (white oak), Q. infectoria (dyer’s oak), Q. lyrata (water white oak), Gernaiaceae, Geranium maculatum
(American cranesbill), Krameriaceae,
Krameria argentea, K. triandra, Lamiaceae, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (dysentery weed), Lauraceae, Aniba coto, Liliaceae, Aletris farinose (star grass), Myricaceae, Comptonia peregrine
(sweet-fern), Myristicaceae, Myristica
fragrans (nutmeg), Myrtaceae,
Angophora lanceolata, Eucalyptus rostrata, Plumbaginaceae, Limonium
carolinianum (sea lavender), Polygalaceae,
Polygala senega (seneca), Polygonaceae,
Coccoloba uvifera (sea-grape), Rosaceae,
Agrimonia eupatoira (common agrimony), Fragaria
spp. (strawberry), Holodiscus
discolor (ocean spray), Ribiaceae,
Cephaelis acuminate, C. ipecacuanha
(ipecac), Uncaria gambir (Bengal
gambir), Rutaceae, Aegle marmelos
(bel), Saxifragaceae, Heuchera Americana
(alum root) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 284-287).
The traditional remedy for diarrhea, that is highly effective, is plain
white rice. For patients losing a lot of
fluid and electrolytes white rice water, cooked in three parts water, is
indicated to be drunk until the appetite improves to the point the patient eats
the plain white rice, which almost always ends violent diarrhea and vomiting
immediately.
Anthelmintics
eliminate parasitic worms. Most of the
worms that affect man live unobtrusively in the intestine and do little to
impair the health of the heir host. The
common helminthes, with an indication of the most effective drugs administered
for treatment are roundworms or trematodes (Ascaris by poperazimes, Trichinella
by prednisone, Trichuris or whipworms and Strongyloides by thiabandazole,
hookworms by tetrachloroethylene, Enterobius or pinworms by bacitracin),
tapeworms or cestodes (Taenia spp. by
niclosamide or dichlorophen) and trematodes or flukes (schistosomiasis by antimony). An anthelmintic drug must have a wide margin
of safety between its toxicity to the worm and its toxic side effects to the
host. To be effective they should orally
active, produce results in a single dose, and be cheap. Either by reducing intestinal flora, which
may serve as food for certain worms, or by direct toxic action on the worm,
chemotherapeutic agents are administered widely today to rid the host of
helminth parasites. Ferns Dryopteris filix-mas (European male
fern), D. marginalis (marginal fern),
Centratherum anthelminticum, Matricaria
chamomilla (chamomile), Capparidaceae,
Polanisia graveolens (clammy weed), Chemopdieaceae,
Chenopodium ambrosioides var.
anthelminticum (wormwood), Cucurbitaceae, Cucurebita pepo, Euphorbiaceae,
Croton macrostachys, Mallotus philppinensis (kamala tree)
Fabaceae, Butea monosperma (flame of
the forest), Lamiaceae, Thumus vulgaris
(common thyme), Locaniaceae, Spigelia
marilandica (wormgrass), Moraceae, Ficus
glabrata, F. laurifolia (figs),
Myrsinaceae, Embelia tsjeriam-cottam,
Papveraceae, Dicentra Formosa (wild
bleeding heart). Amebiciasis is an infection from the ameba Entamoeba histolytica, which causes
dysentery and liver abscesses. The
disease may be mild and chronic. Emetine
from Cephaelis ipecacuanha (ipecac)
has been successfully used to treat amebic dysentery, for a century and in 1959
its analog (less toxic to the heart muscle) was introduced. Chloroqhine and antibiotics such as
paromomycin and metronidazole (Flagyl ER). also have direct amebicidal action.
In nature there are Chenopodium
ambrosioides var. anthelminticum, Apocynaceae, Holarrhena antidysenterica (tellicherry bark) Caricarceae Carica papya (papaya), Simaroubaceae Brucea javanica, B. Sumatrana, Simarouba amara
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 291, 292).
The liver aids in digestion, it is the
largest gland in the body. The liver
serves as a filter and clearing station for purifying blood, as a storage place
for food (particularly sugar and vitamins) as a producer of various kinds of
protein and antibodies, and as a remover of waste. Associated with the liver is the gallbladder,
which stores bile. This substance is
released into the intestine when a fatty meal is digested, the bile acids
digest fat, and the bile salts help absorb fat and fat-soluble vitamins. Hepatica nobilis of the Ranunculaceae
was reputed to cure all liver and bilious difficulties. For the gall bladder Oneagraceae, Oenothera caepitosa (evening-primsrose)
possesses gallic acid. Hepatica nobilis (Ranunculaceae) is
reputed to cure all liver and bileous difficulties, as would the thallus of
liverworts, a primitive group of nonvascular plants allied to mosses. The Houma Indians, boiled roots from Solidago nemoralis (goldenrod) for a tea
to cure yellow jaundice. In the 19th
century physicians used dandelion roots (Taraxacum
offinale) and there is abundant evidence to show that the common dandelion
supplies substances to the liver that the organ can utilize to enable it to
perform its duties effectively. In
England Euonymus europaeus was used
for liver afflictions. Native American
Indians used Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock) for jaundice, Salix lucida (red willow) for removing
bile from the stomach, and Zanthoxylum
clava-herculis (toothache tree) for obstructions of the liver. Fruit form Emblica officinalis in the Euphorbiaceae,
which is very rich in vitamin C, is considered a good liver tonic in India
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 288, 135, 289).
Herbal Remedies
for Gastroenteritis
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
B3 (niacin) |
Supports energy
metabolism, skin health, nervous system and digestive system. Found in spinach, potatoes, tomato juice,
lean ground beef, chicken breast, tuna (canned in water), liver and shrimp. |
|
B12 |
Used in new cell synthesis, helps break down
fatty acids and amino acids, supports nerve cell maintenance. meats, poultry,
fish, shellfish, milk, eggs and Bifidobacterium
spp. that manufacture it.
Supplement needed to prevent chronic diarrhea in vegans. |
|
Minerals |
Indication |
|
Chloride |
Maintains fluid and
electrolyte balance, aids in digestion.
Found in salt, soy sauce, milk, eggs and meats. |
|
Chromium |
Associated with
insulin and is required for the release of energy from glucose. Found in vegetable oils, liver, brewer's
yeast, whole grains, cheese and nuts. |
|
Culinary Herb |
Indication |
|
Sweet basil Ocimum basilicum |
Sweet basil is known for its flavor, scent,
and is widely used in stews, pestos and as a garnish for tomatoes. It eases gas and stomach cramps and
relieves nausea and vomiting, nervous irritability, fatigue, depression,
anxiety and insomnia. |
|
Cinnamon Cinnamomum
spp. |
Respected digestive aid, particularly in
cases of overeating, bloating and sluggish digestion. One of the best herbs around for
stabilizing blood sugar levels.
Powerful antiseptic, with antiviral and antifungal properties. |
|
Garlic Allium sativum |
Garlic is not only tasty, it is the herb of
choice for treating colds, flus, sore throats and poor or sluggish
digestion. It stimulates the
production of white blood cells, boosting immune function and is a potent
internal and external antiseptic, antibacterial, and antimicrobial agent
effective for treating many types of infection, including several forms of
antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
It helps to maintain healthy blood cholesterol and helps prevent blood
platelet aggregation, making it the herb of choice for many circulatory
issues and lowers blood sugar levels in Type 2 diabetes. Garlic can irritate and burn sensitive
skin, cause heartburn, stomach distress, provoke anger and should be avoided
by nursing mothers as it can cause colick. |
|
Ginger Zingiber officinale |
Ginger lowers blood level triglycerides
linked to diabetes and heart disease.
Ginger rivals anti-nausea drugs for chemotherapy, without side
effects. Antiseptic properties useful
for treating gastroenteritis. |
|
Sage Salvia officinalis, 750 Salvia spp. |
Sage is a superb aid in the digestion of
rich, fatty meat. It also lowers
cholesterol levels and is a bitter tonic for the liver. It rebuilds vitality and strength during
long-term illness. Sage tea is a
warming, bracing drink, nice mixed with mint or rosemary and lemon balm. |
|
Turmeric Curcuma longa |
Used in both Ayurvedic and traditional
Chinese medicine as a remedy for jaundice and other liver and gallbladder
disorders. |
|
Black
Pepper |
Indicated
for poor digestion. |
|
Cardamon |
In Ayurvedic medicine, it is considered on
the safest and best digestive aids with ginger and turmeric. |
|
Dill |
Dill is an effective and well known remedy
for digestive complaints, gas and hiccups, with powerful antispasmodic
properties. Sooths colicking babies. |
|
Aloe Vera Aloe barbadensis |
Effective to soothe digestive irritation and
inflammation, such as stomach ulcers and colitis. |
|
Burdock Arctium lappa |
Burdock is a specific remedy for the liver,
like dandelion. |
|
Calendula Calendula officinalis |
Helpful for treating gastrointestinal
problems such as ulcers (mixed with marsh mallow root) and cramps (mixed with
valerian or cramp bark), indigestion (mixed with peppermint) and diarrhea
(alone or mixed with blackberry root).
|
|
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria recutita and related species |
Approved in the pharmacopoeias of 26
countries to treat conditions ranging from colic and indigestion to muscle
spasms, tension, inflammation, and infection.
Chamomile flowers have rich amounts of azulene, a volatile oil with a
range of active principles that serve as anti-inflammatory and antifever
agents, useful in the treatment of arthritis, and other inflammatory
conditions of the nervous and digestive systems. Useful for going into a deep, restful
sleep. Chamomile is a popular remedy
for calming colic and childhood digestive issues. Some people are allergic to
chamomile. |
|
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale |
Encourages optimal digestion, with a rich
supply of bitter compounds that, having stimulated receptor sites on the
tongue, signal the digestive tract.
The root also stimulates the production of bile, which in turn helps
break down cholesterol and fat. Strong
effect is not appropriate for all cases of liver disease. Some people are
allergic to the milky latex of dandelion flowers and stems. |
|
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis |
Because of its rich bitter compounds,
goldenseal is also helpful in treating, liver, gallbladder and digestive
problems. The root makes a very bitter
tea, people generally prefer it in tincture or capsule form. |
|
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis |
A tea made of lemon balm and chamomile is an
excellent remedy for stomach distress and nervous exhaustion. |
|
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra |
. Herb
of choice for soothing irritated and inflamed tissue such as in cases of sore
throat, bronchial inflammation and stomach and bowel irritation. It is very helpful for both gastric and
peptic ulcers. |
|
Marsh Mallow Althaea officinalis |
Because of its sweet flavor and rich
mucilaginous properties marshmallow is a popular medicine for soothing all
manner of inflamed tissue, specifically of the respiratory and digestive
systems and skin. Neutralizes excess acid in the stomach, which is useful for
stomach ulcer. |
|
Peppermint Mentha piperata |
Peppermint is renowned as a digestive aid
and is the herb of choice for relieving nausea and gas. As an antispasmodic, it helps muscles relax
and can reduce stomach cramping and spasms, and its clean, refreshing flavors
is welcome after a bout of indigestion or vomiting. A drop or two of peppermint essential oil
in a cup of warm water quickly removes the foul taste and odor left after
stomach upset. It’s a common
ingredient in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and chewing gum, as well as cleaning
products and disinfectants. Peppermint
also has anodyne properties useful Try tea made with equal parts of chamomile
and peppermint for indigestion and headaches caused by indigestion. |
|
Plantain lantago major, P. lanceolata, P. psyllium |
Used for all manner of liver problems,
including poor digestion and assimilation, hepatitis, jaundice, skin
eruptions and eruptive personalities (too much heat in the body). |
|
Spearmint Mentha spicata) |
Spearmint is a mild digestive aid and is lovely
as a before-dinner aperitif or after-dinner digestif. |
|
Yarrow Achillea millefolium |
Yarrow is bitter and bitter herbs stimulate
liver function and aid in digestion by stimulating the secretion of digestive
enzymes. |
|
Probiotics |
Indication |
|
Bifidobacterium
animalis DN-173
010, (1) |
General
health, GI health |
|
Bifidobacterium
lactis Bb-12 |
General
health, GI health, viral diarrhea, eczema |
|
Bifidobacterium
lactis HN019,
DR10 |
General health, GI health, viral
diarrhea |
|
Lactobacillus
acidophilus NCFM |
General
health, GI health, viral diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus
casei DN-114
001, (2) |
General
health, GI health, irritable bowel syndrome, viral diarrhea |
|
Lactobacillus
casei Shirota |
General
health, GI health, inflammatory bowel disease, antibiotic-associated
diarrhea, allergy, autoimmunity |
|
Lactobacillus
fermentum RF-14 |
General
health, vaginal yeast infection, urinary tract infection |
|
Lactobacillus
plantarum 299v |
General
health, GI health, viral diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus
reuteri SD2112,
ING1, MM53, ATCC 55739, (3) |
General health, GI health, viral
diarrhea, colds & respiratory virus |
|
Lactobacillus
rhamnosus GG,
LGG, (4) |
General health, GI health, inflammatory
bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, viral diarrhea,
antibiotic-associated colitis, C.
difficile diarrhea, travelers’ diarrhea, eczema, autoimmunity |
|
Lactobacillus
rhamnosus GR-1 |
General
health, vaginal yeast infection, urinary tract infection |
|
Lactobacillus
rhamnosus HN001,
DR20 |
General
health, GI health |
|
Saccharomyces
boulardii Iyo |
General
health, GI health, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome,
Viral diarrhea, Antibiotic-associated diarrhea, C .difficile diarrhea, Traveler’s diarrhea |
Source:
Gladstar ’12; Huffnagle ’07: 263; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
The reason for the
distressing behavior of beans in the intestinal tract is the presenvce of
complex sugars (oligosaccharides) triggers the creation of the major component
of the gas produced in wind breaking, which is nothing more complex than
methane. Ordinarily, when a bean
germinates, it secretes the enzyme galactosidase, which breaks down
oligosaccharides. Flatulence, excessive
gas in the stomach or intestine, can be relieved by Apiaceae, Anethum graveolens (dill), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Piminella anisum (anise), Aracea, Acorus calamus (sweet flag), Lamiaceae, Hedeoma pulegioides (American
pennyroyal), Mentha piperita
(peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint),
Monarda fistulosa (wild bergamot), M. punctate (horsemint), Posmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Zingiberaceae,
Zingiber officinale (ginger).
Hemorrhoids or piles are swellings caused by the abnormal dilation of veins of
the anus or rectum. Often hemorrhoids
become inflamed, Treatment of hemorrhoids consists of obtaining easy bowel
movement by astringents, lotions and ointments such as Anacardiaceae, Rhus glabra, asteraceae, Anaphalis margaritacea (pearly
everlasting), Serretula tincotira
(centaury), Fabaceae, Copaifera
officinalis, C. reticulate,
Facaceae, Quercus infectoria (dyer’s
oak) Hamamelidaceae, Hamamelis virginiana
(witch hazel), Oleaceae, Fraxinus
Americana (white ash), Rubiaceae, Cinchona
spp., Simourabaceae, Brucea javanic
and B. sumatrana (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
293, 294, 295) Diabetes mellitus exists
when cells in the pancreas are unable to produce insulin, then glucose is not
transmitted to insulin-dependent cells, and depletion of liver glycogen and
decrease in uptake of glucose from the blood ensue. Hyperglycemia results from lack of insulin,
which promotes the transfer of glucose from the tissue fluids into fact and
muscle cells and fibroblasts. Insulin is
prepared commercially from extracts of beef and swine pituitaries for the
treatment of Type I juvenile onset insulin dependent diabetes. Type II adult onset non-insuling dependent
diabetes is primarily associated with obesity and all treatment regimes should
aim to lose weight by eating healthy fruits, vegetables and whole grains and
exercising daily. All oral antidiabetic
drugs use today are prepared synthetically.
The sulfonylureas, which are derivatives of sulfanilamide, stimulate the
pancreas to produce insulin and affect hepatic enzymes so that glycogen
deposition is increased. More than 200
species of plants are listed in folklore for the treatment of diabetes
(Elvin-Lewis ’77:199, 219, 201, 211, 213, 218).
X.
Reproductive and
Kidney Health
The urinary tract
starts with the kidneys. These twin
organs maintain a healty balance of wate in the body. As they remove excess water from the
bloodstream, they filter out waste products produced by our cells, these wastes
are collected in the urine. The kidneys
create urine continuously. It flows to
the bladder for storage wiva tubes called ureters. When the bladder becomes full, we empty it,
urinating via the urethra. The kidneys
are bean-shaped, reddish organs that lie retroperitoneally on either side of
vertebral column in the posterior part of the abdomen. In the kidney a series of tubules act to
filter the blood and remove from it metabolic waters and excess material by the
prcess of urine formation and excretion.
By monitoring acid-base balance, osmotic relationships, and the content
of organic and inorganic solutes, the kidney regulates the composition and
physical properties of the blood. Urine,
colored yellow by urobilinogen, a breakdown product of hemoglobin, is more
hypertonic than plasma and somewhat more acid, it consists of urea, uric acid,
creatinine, ammonia and hydrogen and potassium ions. The kidney also acts to control the volume of
body fluids through the mediation of an antidiuretic hormone released from the
pituitary. The volume of urine varies
inversely with the amount of hormone secreted, which in turn depends on the
amount of solute concentration of the blood reaching the hypothalamus. Diuretic
are chemicals that induce a net loss of fluid from the body by the urinary
tract. They are used to eliminate excess
liquid and toxic products from the tissues and the vascular system. Of the many groups of diuretics (osmotic
diuretics, mercurial compounds, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, thiazides) only
the xanthines (purine bases) are derived from natural sources. Coffee and tea have long been known to
influence the flow of urine, by the xanthine caffeine is only weakly diuretic. Theophylline is about three times as active
and used today, as aminophylline. Tea made from the Chimaphila umbellate (spotted wintergreen of the North Temperate
zone, Ericaceae) retards the excretion of urine (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 311, 312).
Urinary tract
infections (UTIs) are a common problem, accounting for over eight million
doctor visits each year in the United States.
Infections of the urethra and bladder (cystitis) often occurring
together, can be caused by numerous microorganisms that normally inhabit the
gut or adjacent skin and mucous membranes.
Those most commonly isolated are Streptococcus
agalactae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species and Proteus species, although urine may also
yield the yeast Candida albicans in
diabetics. Urethral infections with Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma hominis, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Chlamydia
species also develop through venereal contact.
In the absence of obstruction, patients may recover spontaneously from
urethritis or cystitis. However surgery
is used to correct anatomical problems related to retention of bladder urine
and bladder lavage with antibiotics is used to eradicate additional
bacteria. Most urinary tract infections
not acquired in a hospital, where antibiotic resistant mutants abound, are
successfully treated with penicillin or Bactrim and by administration of
vitamin C, which lowers the urine pH.
But since urine helps flush bacteria from the urinary tract, anything
that obstructs the flow can lead to a UTI.
That includes an enlarged prostate gland, which is a common condition in
older men. If the problem is confined to
the lower part of the urinary tract, the symptoms may be relatively mild,
unusually frequent urination sometimes with pain or burning. But if the infection reaches the kidneys, it
can cause severe pain, nausea, fever, and significant malaise. Infected kidneys can be damaged permanently
unless the condition is addressed.
Treatment usually begins with a urine test to identify the bacterium
responsible for an infection, and then appropriate antibiotics are prescribed. Painkillers may be needed as well. When the UTI is not severe, symptoms often
disappear a day or two after treatment starts.
However, the bacteria may linger longer.
Follow-up urine tests are recommended to make sure the infection is gone
before medication is discontinued (Huffnagle ’07: 164). As kidney function deteriorates, doctors use
the term renal insufficiency. When
kidney function is extremely poor, and eventually absent, it’s called renal
failure. At this point, the patient will
die in the course of a couple of weeks if he or she does not undergo kidney
dialysis, a complicated but routine procedure whereby the blood is withdrawn
from a vein, sent through a series of external filters to remove toxins and
water, and returned to circulation.
People can live for years undergoing dialysis, although their quality of
life is usually significantly diminished.
The other option for a patient with end-stage kidney disease is to
undergo a kidney transplant operation (Wilson ’06: 38). Cranberry juice can prevent urinary tract
infections because of proanthocyanidin, a prebiotic compound found in
cranberries. It supports probiotics, and
helps ward off UTIs, by preventing E.
coli from attaching to the cells that line the urethra and the bladder. When E.
coli can’t cling to the walls of the urinary tract, they’re swept away by
the normal flow of urine. A 2004 review
recommended one tablet of concentrated cranberry extract (300 to 400 mg) twice
daily or 8 ounces of pure unsweetened cranberry juice three times daily. Care should be taken in recommending
long-term use in people who have a history of kidney stones because cranberries
also contain oxalate, a chemical that can create kidney stones when it combines
with calcium (Huffnagle ’07: 164, 165).
More than 5
percent of Americans have had kidney stones.
They prompt about 2.7 million consultations with healthcare providers
and more than 600,000 emergency room visits.
Men are more likely to develop them problems than women, and anyone who
has had kidney stones in the past is vulnerable to a recurrence. A kidney stone that produces severe pain is
readily diagnosed by an X-ray, CT scan or ultrasound. However, some kidney stones are
asymptomatic. Theyare found after
routine tests reveal blood in the urine, or they are discovered when the
imaging tests mentioned above are performed to investigate other probles. If the stone is small enough to pass through
the urinary tract without causing damage, which is often the case, the only
treamtnet suggested may be drinking extra water to speed the process. Otherwise one of the following three
procedures are used. Shock waves (called
extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy) are beamed by machine at the stone,
breaking it into pieces small enough to
exit through the urinary tract. This is
the most common approach to stones that are too large to pass on their own. Tunnel surgery (called percutaneous
nephrolithotomy) is performed by inserting a tunnel-like devise into the kidney
through the back. Then the surgeon sends
a special viewing and operating instrument through the tunnel to find and
remove the stone. This procedure is used
for larger kidney stones. Ureteroscopic
stone removal is performed by the surgeon threating a viewing instrument
through the urethra and into the urinary tract.
This device, called a ureteroscope, permits the surgeon to remove or
shatter the stone. The most common type
of kidney stone is made from calcium oxalate, a compound made up of two
substances, calcium and oxalate, that all of us consume in our diet. Oxalate is found in many common plant foods,
it’s also produced during the normal metabolism of dietary sugars and amino
acids. However, if the oxalate level in
the body becomes too high, it an accumulate and possibly combine with calcium
to form kidney stones. Less commonly,
kidney stones are made from other chemical combinations. They also may develop as a result of urinary
tract infections, kidney disease or certain unusual metabolic disorders. Medications, including low-dose antibotics
for certain types of kidney stones, may be used to alter the chemical
composition of a person’s urine. Most
substance that we consume are broken down by digestive enzymes that our body
makes, but oxalate is different. The
enzyme needed to digest it isn’t made by us, but by bacteria in our microflora,
most notably the probiotic Oxalobacter
formigenes, which normally lives in our gut. If the oxalate isn’t broken down in the
intestinal tract, the kidneys must try to filter it out, and if oxalate levels
become high, stones may form in the kidneys (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 315-316).
Studies find that
people who form oxalate-containing kidney stones are far more likely to have
very low levels of O. formigenes than
are healthy individuals. Long-term use
of antibotics is associated with an absence of O. formigenes. Prelininary
investigations in both animals and humans indicate that administering O. formigenes reduces the level of oxalate
in the blood and urine. This particular
probiotic isn’t yet available commercially.
But the same enzyme that O.
formigene makes to break down oxalate in the intestines is produced by
other probiotic bacteria, including Bifidobacterium
lactis, B. infantis, and Lactobacillus
acidophilus, that are found in some yogurts and supplements (Huffnagle ’07:
167, 168, 169). Plants used to treat both metabolic and infectious disorders of
the urinary tract such as renal and bladder stones. Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) prescribed
infusions of peony (Paeonia officinalis),
mint (Mentha spp.) and chick pea (Cicer arientiunum) to dissolve stones in
the bladder and kidney. Other examples,
Angiosperms, Anacardieaceae, Rhus
aromatic, Annonaceae, Asimina
reticulate (Seminole tea), Apieaceae, Eryngium
campestre (snakeroot), Asteraceae, Eupatorium
maculatum (snakeweed), E. purpureum
(gravel root), Siegesbeckia orientalis,
Caryophyllaceae, Arenaria serpyllifolia,
Spergularia rubra (red sandwort),
Clusiaceae, Ascyrum hypericoides (St.
Andrew’s cross), Ericaceae, Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi (bearberry), Calluna
vulgaris (heather), Chimaphila
umbellate (spotted wintergreen), Euphorbiaceae, Croton humilis, Fabaceae, Caesalpinia nuga, Copaifera coriaceae (copaiba), Lamiaceae, Orthosiphon aristatus, O.
Stamineus, Poaceae, Arundo kakao,
Solanaceae, Fabiana imbricate, Solanum
ammosum, S. paniculatum,
Ulmaceae, Ulmus fulva (slippery elm)
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 315-316).
The kidneys are
frequently the cause of hypertension for many reasons. This is because the kidneys help to regulate
blood pressure. As blood is pumped out
of the heart in to the main artery, the aorta, it travels throughout the
body. The aorta gives off many arteries
that feed all of the organs, muscles and other structures. When blood goes through the kidneys, it passes
through the renal (kidney) arteries. The
kidney are very complex filtering machines that filter out toxins that will
then leave the body via the urine. Blood
passes from the aorta through the renal artery and into the kidney, where it is
pushed through a fine mesh of very small blood vessels that act like a
sieve. After going through this filter,
the blood travels through a loop of blood vessels that control salt and water
balance. This allows water to be reabsorbed
back into your circulation to keep everything in balance. Ultimately, toxins and whatever salt and
water you don’t need pass from the kidneys down pipes called ureters into the
bladder, which you empty periodically when the urge hits you. When the kidney senses low blood pressure it
produces a hormone called renin. This
hormone is spilled from the kidney into the circulation and acts on another
chemical, which then acts on a another, and in the long run the message goes to
the arteries in the body to squeeze down, thus raising the overall pressure in
the system. This phenomenon of
contracting arteries in the body is known as vasoconstriction. The arteries have muscles in their wall for
exactly this reason. Another consequence
of renin production by the kidneys is the triggering and the production and
release of hormones and chemicals form the adrenal glands, which sit on top of
the kidneys. These substances not only
contribute to the constriction of the arteries, but also pass through the kidneys
and cause them to reabsorb salt and water back into the circulatory system,
thus helping to raise blood pressure by maintaining the fluid volume in your
blood vessels. Many diseases, including
hypertension, can create damage to the kidney.
Tumors, infection, diabetes, autoimmune diseases (lupus, for example) or
kidney stones can also cause kidney problems resulting in higher blood
pressure. Buildup of cholesterol in the renal artery can create a partial
blockage and thereby decrease blood flow to the kidney, triggering renin
production and raising pressure. Each
adrenal gland looks like a little triangular hat sitting atop the kidney below
it. It is made up of two parts: the
middle core, known as the medulla, and the outer layer, known as the cortex
(cover). The medulla makes and stores
adrenaline and couple closely related compounds, which quickly raise blood
pressure in a crisis situation. The
outer cortex of each adrenal gland makies a hormone called aldosterone. Aldosterone is a very powerful compound that
travels by way of the blood to the kidney, where it tells the kidney to
reabsorb sodium (salt) before it goes out in the urine (Wison ’06: 25-28).
The genital system
of the human females is composed of two ovaries, the Fallopian tubes (which
connect the ovaries to the uterus and where fertilization takes place), the
uterus, (where a fertilized egg may become attached), and the external opening
of the system, the vagina. The ovaries
produce two gonad stimulating hormones (gonadotropins). One stimulates the hormone-secreting cells of
the follicle, which contain the immature eggs, to produce increasing amounts of
estrogens, female steroid sex hormones.
The other gonadoptropin triggers the ovulation process, the mature egg
leaves the follicle and the empty follicle is stimulated to produce large
amounts of progesterone, the second female sex steroid, that causes the uterus
to thicken and and become highly vascular, spongy nest, ready to accept and
nurture a fertilized and dividing egg if one arrives from the Fallopian
tube. The human male’s reproductive
system centers on the process in the testis, which produces sperm and sex
hormones. The testis is stimulated by
pituitary gonadotropins to produce male steroid hormones, mainly testosterone,
which in turn must in high concentration to maintain sperm production. Sperm pass through the vas deferens and
urethra at ejaculation. The sperm are
still immature, and only in the female reproductive tract do they reach
maturity in response to estrogen domination around the time of ovulation. Few reach the upper part of the Fallopian
tube, where one may penetrate and fertilize the egg (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 317,
318).
Venereal disease
and difficulties relating to sexual drive are the chief genital problems of the
male. Infertility may be corrected
following treatment with clomiphene. Xylopia antunesii (Anonaceae), Waltheria americana (Sterculiaceae), Oxalis acetosella (wood sorrel), Nymphaea alba (white waterlily), Pedalium murex (pedaliaceae). Sexual
drive (libido) and sexual performance (erection and orgasm) are governed mainly
by psychic factors. Hormonal influences
are important, however, especially the androgens, which affect libido in men
and women. Claims for the classical
sexual stimulants (aphrodisiacs) cantharides or Spanish fly and yohimbine, have
never been adequately supported.
Priapism, an abnormally persistent erection of the penis is not
accompanied by increased sexual desire or improved performance, serious damage
to the genitourinary tract can result, and there have been fatalities from
cantharides ingestion. Cream massages,
foot baths and vaginal douches work miracles for the frigid female made of
celandine poppy (Chelidonium majus),
cow parsnip (Heracleum sphondylium)
and savory (Saturega Montana) to
which may be added peppermint (Mentha
piperita) and broad leaved plaintain (Plantago
major). Anaphrodisiacs are capable of inhibiting sexual desire and
performance, such as barbiturates, narcotics, tranquilizers and other
depressant drugs in does having more than mild sedative effect and from the use
of ganglion blocking drugs. Failure to
ejaculate, without loss of libido, is occasionally encountered following
treatment with thioidazone and guanethidine.
Cyproterone acetate was released in Great Britain in 1974, to treat
rapists and others convicted of sex crimes. Estrogen also powerfully inhibits
the libido in males and does not increase sexual responsiveness in women. Testosterone given to women in large doses
causes intensified libido and genital sensitivity (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 324, 326,
331, 332).
Herbal Remedies
for Reproductive and Kidney Health
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Folate |
Supports DNA
synthesis and new cell formation. Prescribed to pregnant mothers. Found in tomato juice, green beans,
broccoli, spinach, asparagus, okra, black-eyed peas, lentils, navy, pinto and
garbanzo beans. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Zinc |
A part of many enzymes,
involved in production of genetic material and proteins, transports vitamin
A, taste perception, wound healing, sperm production and the normal
development of the fetus. Found in
spinach, broccoli, green peas, green beans, tomato juice, lentils, oysters,
shrimp, crab, turkey (dark meat), lean ham, lean ground beef, lean sirloin
steak, plain yogurt, Swiss cheese, tofu and ricotta cheese. |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Cinnamon Cinnamomum
spp. |
Mild emmenagogue, useful in sluggish and
painful menstruation. |
|
Sage Salvia spp. |
Sage is a mild hormonal stimulant and can
promote regular menstruation, offering relief from hot flashes and night
sweats for menopausal women, and premature ejaculation or “night emissions”
for men. Sage works in part, by
“drying” and regulating fluids in the body.
It reduces sweating and is often used in deodorants. 1 cup of tea “dries” mother’s milk, should
not be used by nursing mother. |
|
Arugula: |
Considered a sexual stimulant and
reproductive tonic. |
|
Parsley |
Parsley is rich in iron, beta-carotene,
chlorophyll and many other vitamins and minerals, parsley I used to treat
iron deficiency, anemia and fatigue. A
primary herb for bladder and kidney problem, it is safe and effective
diuretic. It can help to dry up
mother’s milk during the weaning process and is effective as a poultice for
swollen, enlarged breasts and/or mastitis.
A nursing mother should not consume parsley |
|
Lavender Lavandula spp. |
Many women use it during childbirth. A drop or two of lavender essential oil
rubbed directly on the feet and/or back can bring gentle relief. Lavender is also one of the herbs
traditionally used to bathe the new baby.
Lavender is generally considered safe, though it’s recommended that
pregnant women avoid using it internally in large amounts. |
|
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis |
Lemon balm is rich in polyphenols, which
have a strong antiviral action which is effective against herpes and
shingles. Herbalists often combine
lemon balm with licorice to create a particularly effective remedy against
the virulent herpes virus. |
|
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra |
Licorice is often considered to be estrogen
stimulating. Glycyrrhizic acid can
cause sodium retention and potassium loss, resulting in stress to the heart
and kidneys. Individuals with a
history of high blood pressure, water retention, heart palpitations, and
other signs of heart and/or kidney stress should use licorice only under the
guidance of a qualified health-care practitioner. |
|
Marsh Mallow Althaea officinalis |
Soothes the bladder and kidneys and is an
important ingredient in formulas for treating bladder and kidney
infections. Marshmallow is good for
keeping babies’ bottom soft and dry. |
|
Nettle Urtica dioica, U. urens |
Because of its nutritive properties and
positive effects on the liver, nettle is also an excellent tonic for the
reproductive system of both men and women.
Used as a remedy for gout, rheumatism, anemia, exhaustion, menstrual
difficulties, skin problems and hay fever, to mention a few. It is frequently included in formulas for
PMS and other menstrual difficulties, fertility issues, and menopausal
issues, and nettle seeds are used as both a preventative and a curative for
prostate issues. |
|
Oats Avena sativa, A. fatua |
Combined with damiana root and nettle root,
they’re used as a sexual tonic for men with impotency problems. |
|
Red Clover Trifolium pretense |
Red clover is a favorite of many menopausal
women, and both the flowers and the leaves contain phytoestrogens (plant
hormones) and isoflavones that have a beneficial effect on menopausal
symptoms such as hot flashes, mood swings and night sweats, with sage and
motherwort. |
|
St. John’s Wort Hypericum perforatum |
Whether taken internally or applied
topically St. John’s wort has marked antibacterial, antiviral and
anti-inflammatory properties, which make it helpful for treating bacterial
and viral infections such as herpes and shingles. Preliminary studies indicate an ability to
inhibit the AIDS virus. |
|
Yarrow Achillea millefolium |
Yarrow also has antispasmodic properties and
is used to relieve both menstrual and stomach cramps. Because of its stimulating action on the
uterine muscles, it should be avoided during pregnancy, especially in the
early stages, though it is used at childbirth to facilitate labor and stop
excessive bleeding. |
|
Probiotics |
Indication |
|
Lactobacillus fermentum RF-14 |
General
health, vaginal yeast infection, urinary tract infection. |
|
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 |
General
health, vaginal yeast infection, urinary tract infection |
Source:
Gladstar ‘12; Brown ’04: 82, 83; Huffnagle ’07:
263; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Oxytocic agents
stimulate the motility of the uterus, hastening the rapidity of labor, like two
ergot alkaloids from the fungus Claviceps
purpurea, ergonovine and a semisynthetic derivative, methylergonovine to
produce firm uterine contraction and decrease postpartum uterine bleeding. Cinchona and Oldenlandia affinis (Rubiaceae), Aizoaceae, Trianthema portulacastrum, Asteraceae, Arctium lapp (burdock), Erigeron
philadephicus (Philadelphia fleabane), Montanoa
tomentosa, Senecio aureus (squaw
weed), Caprifoliaceae, Sambucus
canadensis (elderberry), Dioscoreaceae, Dioscorea
villosa, Liliaceae, Trillium
grandiflorum (white trillium), Malcaceae, Gossypium spp. (cotton), Myricaceae, Comptonia asplendiifolia (sweet fern), Rubiaceae, Mitchella repens (partridge berry), are
used as childbirth aids. Pospartum
relief is provided by Apiaceae, Angelica
polymorpha var sinensis, Neonelsonia
acuminate, Beulaceae, betula pumila
(low birth), Fabaceae, Caesalpinia nuga.
Loranthaceae, Phoradendron serotinum
(American mistletoe), Onagraceae, Fuchsia
excorticate, Poaceae, Paspalum
scorbiculatum (koda millet). The skin of the mango fruit (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae) is used
in some tropical areas to treat uterine hemorrhages. In India a decoction of the dried bark of Saraca indica (Fabaceae) is taken for
various ailments for the uterus. Nutmeg or mace (Myristica fragrans) is rumoured to promote abortion. Genetic factors, such as a predisposition to
teratogenesis (e.g. differing percentage of cleft palates in offspring of mouse
strains treated with cortisone) may account for about 20% of congenital
defects, perhaps 20% occur following accidental exposure to teratogens and
about 60% of the abnormalities among the unborn are due to the combined effects
of chemical teratogens and individual genetic composition (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 96,
322, 323, 324). While some women look forward to menopause as a respite from a
lifetime of menstrual cycles, most await it with a combination of wariness and
dread. It raises the specter of a whole
host of challenges to the body, mind and spirit: diminishing health, including
an increased risk of heart disease, cancer and osteoporosis; lack of sexual
desire and response; decline in memory and mental ability; erosion or loss of
personal relationships. These challenges
seem even more daunting now that the dream of synthetic hormone replacement
therapy (HRT) as a way to stay young and feminine has turned into a nightmare. A growing number of women are turning to natural
remedies – such as the plant estrogens in soy, black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) and chasteberry or
vitex (Vitex agnus-castus) - to ease
menopausal transition. Because they’re
natural plant estrogens (also called phyto-estrogens) - are believed to be
safer and milder than synthetic hormone replacement (Brown ’04: 178, 179).
Vaginitis refers
to an inflammation of the vaginal lining.
The condition can be asymptomatic, but usually produces such problems as
abnormal vaginal discharge, unpleasant odo, and irritation, itching, burning or
pain. The problem is very common among
American women, accounting for more than 10 million doctor visits per
year. The two most common causes of
vaginitis are infections from bacteria and from the yeast Candida albicans. Vaginitis also can be caused by a parasite
called Trichomonas, by viruses, or by
irritants such as contraceptive creams, bubble bath or detergents used to
launder underwar. Certain mirobes
normally live in the vagina, including probiotic Lactobacillus bacteria. As
with the digestive-tract, the vaginal microflora is normaly in a healthy
balance that keeps disease-causing mircrobes in check. But this balance can be disrupted. A woman can be exposed to sexually
transmitted bacteria, such as Chlamydia,
that cause vaginal inflammation.
Sometimes the microflora is adversely affected by antibiotics or other
medications, particularly ones given vaginally, including contraceptive cream. Hormonal changes also can affect the vaginal
microflora. Whatever the cause of the
disruption, harmful bacteria, which usually live in low numbers in the vagina
seize the opportunity to proliferate.
The most common symptoms of bacterial vaginosis are itching, irritation
and discharge with a fishy odor.
Diagnosis is confirmed by microscopic examination of vaginal
discharge. Typically, the condition is
treated with antibotics, which the patient takes orally or in the form of a
vaginal cream or gel. The yeast most
likely to cause a vaginal infection is Candida
albicans. Experts estimate that
three out of four women will experience at least one C. albicans infection during their lifetime. The problem is a common side-effect of
antibiotic treatment. Tyipcal symptoms
include a white discharge, burning during urination, itching and soreness. Yeast infections are treated with antifungal
medications, such miconazole or clotrimazole, usually given as a vaginal cream
or suppository. Another option, which is
not available to pregnant women because of possibl risks to the baby, is an
oral antifungal drug such as Sporonox (itraconazole). Vulvovaginitis is extremely painful and is
accompanied by such symptoms as local heat, edema, discharge, severe
dyspareunia, all rendering coitus impossible as well as producing pain during
defecation and urination, Trichomonas
vaginalis, Hemophilus vaginalis,
and Candida albicans have been
frequently implicated. Extension to the
cervix can occur also with Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus species, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, genital
strains of Chlamydia and
cytomegaloviruses. Therapy using penicillin G and gentamicin may be combined
with curettage and surgical removal of any obstruction. Certain Lactobacillus
strains, including L. rhamnosus GR-1
and L. fermentum RC 14, will colonize
the vagina after being taken orally.
Though evidence is not yet conclusive, some clinical trials have shown
tht certain lactic acid bacteria, including L.
acidophilus, L. rhamnosus GR-1, and L.
fermentum RC-14 can prevent vaginitis (Huffnagle ’07: 161, 162)
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 315-316).
The development in
the early 1950s of semisynthetic steroids for use as oral contraceptives. Even
though the oral contraceptive is the most effective and convenient form of
birth control 0.1 to 1/5 accidental pregnancies occur per 100 woman years of
use, compared with 15 per 100 using the rhythm method. However the major risk with the pill, the
formation of blood clots in veins, is about seven to eight times higher in
users than in nonusers. Other negative
side effects include increased blood pressure, gallbladder disease, headaches,
anemia (supplements of vitamin B and E may be indicated and increased incidence
of yeast vaginitis. On the positive the
pill can improve or eliminate menstrual disorders, acne and noncancerous lumps
in the breast. A second modern form of
birth control was the intrauterine device (IUD). Up to 5 million American women use IUDs but
recent reports indicate a sharp increase in the number of death and uterine
infections among users. In folk medicine
the Brasana Indians of Colombia ingest the unripened spadix of Urospatha antisylleptica (Araceae) and
the Shoshonis and other Nevada Indians at one time used Veratrum californicum (false hellebore, Liliaceae) take daily for 3
weeks to ensure sterility. For a long
time males were responsible for severing their vas deferens in vasectomies but
this may have physiological complications entailing autoimmunity to disorders
like rheumatoid arthritis.Although historically it has been associated with considerable
censure and medical risk, abortion nonetheless has been sought even under the
most adverse conditions. The literature
provides numerous abortifacients among most peoples of the world such as
Apocynaceae, Kibatalia blacoi,
Asteraceae, Chrysanthemum parthenium
(feverfew), Celastraceae, Celastrus
paniculata, Liliaceae, Urginea burkei,
Rhamnaceae, Colubrina Asiatic,
Thymelaeaceae, Daphne gnidium,
Verbenaceae, Avicennia marina and Petrea kohautiana ,Menispermaceae, Cissampelos pareira roots are used to
prevent a threatened miscarriage and stop uterine hemorrhages (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
319, 320, 321, 323, 324).
Since the
introduction of oral contraceptives and the near abandonment of the condom for
contraception, the incidence of venereal disease has increased rapidly. This is further complicated by the general
public’s attitude that a “shot of penicillin always does the trick”. Unfortunately, penicillin-resistant mutants
of Meisseria gonorrhoeae have been
found, and treatment is not always the easy regimen it once was. Gonorrhea may be transmitted through venereal
contact to the genitals or oral cavity, at birth to the eyes, and through
fomites to the vulvovagina of prepubertal girls. Purulence is the common system. Syphilis has a much lower incidence than
gonorrhea, but is increasing. Of
approximately 100 individuals who develop the initial lesion, a hard, black,
painless chancre) only two-thirds will develop the maculopapular eruptions
characteristics of the secondary stage, and only one-third of these the
autoimmune gummas and cardiovascular and nerve damage of the tertiary stage. Penicillin is the drug of choice in the
treatment of all stage of syphilis and should be used unless the patient is
allergic to it. Other veneral diseases
are chancroid, lymphogranuloma vereum, and granuloma inguinale. The infection by Hemophilus ducreyi is successfully treated with erythromycin and
tetracycline. Lymphogranuloma venereum,
due to infection with Chlamydia
spp. If the organisms disseminate
through the blood and lymphatic glands they can cause meningoencephalitis,
pneumonitis, cystis, and ocularglandular syndrome. Treatment with sulfa drugs, erythromycin and
tetracycline have been successful. Plant
extracts used to treat Gonorrhea are Fern Drynaria
rigidula, Gymnosperm Pinus palustris
(Southern pine), Angiosperms Aizoaceae Mesembryanthemum
crystalinum (ice plant), Apiaceae, Thapsia
Montana, Aslepiadaceae, Marsdenia
reichenbachii (Condorvine), Asteraceae, Arctium
lappa (Great burdock), Erigeron
Canadensis (Fleabane), Liatris
spicata (Blazing star), Fabaceae, Cassia
surattensis (Kembacng), Copaifera
lansodorffii, C. reticulate, Paradaniellia
oliveri, Myrsinaceae, Labisisa pumila
(Kelimparan tooli), Rubiaceae, Galium
umbrosum, Solanaceae, Solanum
agrarium, Urticaceae, Urera baccifer
(Oretega de caballo), To treat syphilis
are Angiosperms Apocynaceae, Tabernaemontana
corymbosa (Djelotong badak), Bignoniaceae, Jacaranda oxyphylla, Campanulaceae, Lobelia siphilitica (Blue lobelia), Cucurbitaceae, Cayaponia spelina, Liliaceae, Smilax medica, S. ornate (Sarsaparilla), Monimiaceae, Atherosperma moschatum
(Southern sassafras), Papaveraceae, Corydalis
gavaniana (Bhutakesi), Urticaceae, Utera
caracasana, Zygophyllaceae, Guaiacum
officinale, (Lignum-vitae), G.
sanctum (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 332, S335, 333-334).
XI.
Skin Care
The skin is the largest organ of the
body. The external surface of the body
is circumscribed by skin, by such such derivates of the skin as hair, nails,
and glandular structures, and by several specialized types of receptors. This
pliable, protective covering over the body surface acts as a regulator of body
temperature, a control of excessive loss of water, as well as organic and
inorganic materials, an important area of storage, and a synthesizer of several
important substances used in the body.
In addition, it receives a variety of sensations. Skin may be thick (hands, feet), thing
(eyelids, penis) or typically intermediate, about 1 to 2 mm thick. It possesses a uperficial epidermis
consisting of up to five distinct layers of cells, from the internal layer,
which renews the epidermis by mitosis, to the outermost corneum having 25 to 30
layers of flat, dead scalelike cells filled with keratin. The outer cells are constantly being
shed. Below the epidermis is a tough,
flexible and elastic layer, the dermis, it contains many blood vessels and is
much thicker than the epidermis. Not
clearly demarked from the dermis is the fat-infiltrated subcutaneous layer
constituting of connective tissue loos enough to accommodate significant
volumes of fluid. A downgrowth of
epidermal cells into the dermis forms a hair follicle. Hair has a bulb on its lower end, a visible
shaft, and an oil-producing gland that keeps the hair pliable and the
surrounding skin moist. Nails are
modifications of the two uppermost layers of epidermis, and each has an active
growing region, the lunula or whitish half-moon shaped area at the base. The skin possesses sweat glands, which
produce a watery substance important in temperature regulation. Skin is
normally under tension and retracts if cut, with age skin loses some elasticity
and tends to sag. At one time the skin
was thought to be impermeable to all substances, but we now know that fat
solubility increases the capacity of many materials to penetrate it. Although the skin manufactures substances for
its own use (e.g. keratin) its pruduction of vitamin D from the sterol
dehydrocholesterol, which is acted on by ultraviolet light when absorbed into
the bloodstream, it important in the metabolism of calcium and phosphate
throughout the body. A variety of pigments
are found in the skin. Skin color is
largely due tot eh presence of melanin and carotene. Melanin is a yellow to black pigment located
in the basal epidermal layer among Caucasians and found in all epidermal layers
among Negroids. Exposure to ultraviolet
radiation increases the amount and darkens the color of melanin, leading to
tanning and protection against radiation.
Carotene, a yellow-orange pigment, is found in the fatty areas of the
dermis and out epidermal layer in Orientals (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 337, 338).
A wound is a breach in the continuity of
any body tissue. Wounds may open or they
may no show no external opening in skin covering. In the case of a bruise, the wound is obvious
because of the rupture of blood vessels.
Wounds should be washed with sterile water and soap, and wrapped in
sterile gauze. Healing should
result. If secondary infections occur,
penicillin or other appropriate antibiotics and the sulfa drugs may be
indicated. The ancient Egyptians stuffed
moldy bread in wounds, and, when the mold contained members of the genus Penicillium, a form of penicillin would
be produced. Other plants have useful
astringent properties that stop the flow of blood. Fern allies Cyathea Mexicana (treefern) Equisetum heleocharis (horsetail),
Gymnosperms, Pinus montezumae
(Montezuma pine), Tsuga Canadensis,
Angiosperms, Anacardiaceae, Pistacia
Ientiscus (Pistachio), Rhus glabra,
Apiaceae, Ferula galbaniflua, F. jaieschkeana, Arecaceae, Caryota mitis, Asclepiadaceae, Asclepias tuberosa, Asteraceae, Cnicus japonicas, Gunura pinatifida, Bombacaceae, Bombax
malabaricum, Boraginaceae, Cordia
globosa, Burseraceae, Commiphra
opobalsam (Mecca myrrh), Clusiaceae, Caraipa
fasciculate, Clusia flava (monkey
apple), Combretaceae, Combretum
glutinosum, Ericaceae, Pyrola
spp. Erythroxylaceae, Erythroxylum
citrifolium, Fabaceae, Cassia
servicea, Myroxylon balsamum
(balsam of Tolu) M. pereirae (balsam
of Peru), Lamiaceae, Ameracus dictamnus,
Liliaceae, Bulbine narcissifolia, Dracaena cinnabari, Loaniaceae, Buddleja Americana, Moraceae, Ficus cotinifolia, F. trichopoda, Nyctaginaceae, Boerhaavia
plumbaginea, Orchidaceae, Bletia
purpurea, Ranunculaceae, Hydrastic
Canadensis (golden seal), Sapotaceae, Lucuma
glycyphloea, Verbenaceae, Lippia
scaberrima, Vitaceae, Vitis compress,
Zingiberaceae, curcuma longs,
Zygophyllaceae, Larrea Mexicana
(greasewood). The entry into deep tissue
wounds after trauma or surgery of spores of the anaerobic species of Clostridium perfringens, C. septicum, C.
oedematiens, and C. histolyticum
can result in gas gangrene. Another skin
infection, due to Erysipelotric insidiosa,
is slower spreading. Penicillin,
erythromycin and tetracycline are used in therapy (Elvin-Lewi ’77: 340-343,
349).
Plants can mediate
inflammatory reactions of the skin. In
some instances this effect is attributable to the nature of the plant itself,
that is, spines, thorns, bristles and hairs causing mechanical injury. Of the many plants that transfer their toxins
by means of stinging hairs, the nettles (Urtica
dioica and Laportea Canadensis)
contain histaminelike substances found in bladders within the leaf. A more severe reaction is elicited by another
species of Urticaceae, Urera baccifers
which is found in tropical America. The
spurge nettle, cnidoscolus stimulosis
(Euphorbiaceae), can elicit painful irritation and itching following transfer
of a caustic irritant. Perhaps the most
painful reaction of all comes from Mucuna
pruriens (Facaceae), whose barbed spines covering the seed pods contain a
highly irritating proteolytic enzyme called mucunain. Gurania
guaransenia (Cucurbitaceae) in addition to its own stinging hairs, harbors
a butterfly larva having similar devices. Penicillin with its antigenic benzyl
penicillloyl antigenic determinants and othe rhaptenic moieties is perhaps the
worst offender, and some types of allergy appears in from 0.5% to 18% of
patients using this drug therapeutically, hives after 24-48 hours or
generalized anaphylaxis is the most common (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 75 76, 77, 79,
87). Eczema is an intensely uncomfortable skin condition involving
inflammation, redness, itching and often blistering. Constant itching provokes scratching, which
exacerbates inflammation. The most
common form of eczczema is atopic dermatitis.
The term “atopic” refers to an allegic response, “dermatitis” means skin
inflammation. Over 15 million Americans
suffer from atopic dermatitis. Eczema
tends to run in families and is not contagious.
The problem often begins in infancy and continues through young
adulthood. However, adults can be
affected, too. In babies, eczema is
usually found on the face and scalp. In
older children and adults, the condition most often affets the skin in back of
the elbows and knees, or the face, neck and upper chest. In one study the probiotic supplements Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG reduce the
incidence of eczema in high risk infants in half (Huffnagle ’07: 146, 148,
149).
Skin is very susceptible to damage by
flame, scalding, or contact with hot objects.
A reddening or first degree burn of the skin is due either to direct
damage to capillaries, causing their dilation, or to the release of chemicals
such as histamine, which dilate vessels.
A sunburn is a common example. A
second degree burn results in blistering and usually only involves the
epidermis or occasionally the uppermost dermal layer. Third degree burns destroyed the deep tissues
of the skin. Treatment of burns is
related to reducing pain and excluding infection. It is important to apply large, sterile, firm
dressings to the area. Wet dressings
incorporation silver nitrate solutions are used for antisepsis and to promote
protein coagulation in the treatment of second degree burns and deeper
ulcerations. Antibiotics are also
important in the treatment of large and deep wounds. If the width of the area burned extends more
than an inch, skin grafting is indicated.
Home burn remedies include Aloe
barbadensis and Zizyphus vulgaris,
powdered in 80% alcohol in China. Other
poultices are Fungus Xylaria obovata,
Angiosperms, Asteraceae, Parthenium integrifolium
(Wild quinine), Beulaceae, Alnus spp.
(Alders), Betula spp. (Birches),
Crassulaceae, Sempervivum tectorum
(Hen-and-chickens), Iridaceae, Iris
versicolor (blue flag), Liliaceae, Aloe
barbadensis, (Aloe), Meliaceae, Carapa
procera, Piperaceae, Peperomia
leptostachya, Ranunculaceae, Anemone
cylindrical (Thimbleweed), Rhamnaceae, Trevoa
trinervia, Verbenaceae, Clerodendron
buchananii, Violacceae, Melicytus
camiflorus (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 343, 344).
Leaves of Anthmis cotula (mayweed) and Plantago major (plantain) are rubbed on
the skin to relieve bee stings. Hedeoma pulegioides (American pennyroyal
repels chiggers and remedies their bites.
Balsam from Liquidambar orientalis
in China and L. Styraciflua in North
America have also been used to treat chigger bites and other skin
afflictions. Oil from seeds of Carapa procera (Meliaceae) relieves the
pain and irritation of mosquito bites.
In eastern North American the juice of Eupatorium capillifolium (dog fennell) has long been used in domestic
medicine to treat insect bites, and Carapa
guineensis (andiroba oil) has been found efficacious. Coleus
armoaticus (Lamiaceae) is widely cultivated throughout the world, poultices
made of leaves are used to relieve both scorpion bites and centipede stings. Relief form the pain of scorpion bites is
also obtained from macerated roots of Achyranthes
aspera (amaranthaceae) in India, plant juices of Elettariopsis sumatrana (Zingiberaceae) in southeastern Asia, roots
of Lobelia nicotinaefolia
(Campanulaceae( in India, from roots and fruit of Luvunga scandens (Rutaceae( in Malaya and from most parts of Obveronia longibracteata (Orchidaceae)
in Cambodia. Venom of snakes contains a
number of enzymes or proteinaceous substances that attack the blood, the nervous
system, or other tissues. Certain venoms
produce direct toxic effects, some are systemically lethal (e.g. rattlesnake
venom) whereas others are destructive primarily to the tissues in the vicinity
of the bite. Most types of snake venom
poisoning can be treated with the use of antivenoms. Plants reputedly efficacious against
poisonous snakebites can be obtained from all parts of the world inhabited by
poisonous snakes. Those found in the
United State, are Araliaceae Aralia
spinoso (Angelica tree), Asteraceae, Antennaria
plantaginifolia (Everlasting pussy toes), Echinacea angustifolia (Purple coneflower), Prenanthes serpentaria (Lion’s foot), Gentianaceae, Gentiana andresii (Closed gentian), and
Polygalaceae, Polygala senega (Seneca
snakeroot) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 345).
Rashes, dermatitis
and itches due to allergic or other causes are commonly treated with
antihistamines, which suppress histamine release. Many antihistamines also relieve pruritus
(itching). Often wet dressings of water
or ethanol are used, or lotions having anti-inflammatory and cooling effects
(zinc oxide, talc, glycerin, water, and often calamine). For relief from pain and itching home
remedies include applying the juice of dock or sorrel (Rumex spp.), or the leaves of houseleek, onion or plantain. The stinging rash obtained from brushing
against stinging nettles (Urtica spp.)
is best treated by Rumex spp. juice,
which is often found growing nearby. Native Americans employed a number of
remedies against poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac: Grindelia robgusta was used by tribes in California, Bactuca Canadensis latex by the
Menominees, and Impatiens biflora
(jewel weed) juice by the Potawatomis.
The last widely used today by Indians living in the Appalachian area,
both as a prophylactic and after poison ivy sores have erupted. Extracts from jewel weed are also found in a
number of commercial preparations. Dried seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra) leaves of Capparis horrida, dried ripe fruit of
green pepper (Capsicum frutescens),
whole plants of Cneorum tricoccum,
and in Hindu medicine Drosera burmannii,
are all considered rubefacients. These
skin irritants used in plasters or poultices, increase blood supply to the skin
and create a warm, tingling sensation, they are also used in the home for
respiratory ailments (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 346-348).
Boils, pimples and
large carbuncles extending to the subcutaneous tissue result form infection
with strains of Staphylococcus aureus,
producing the enzyme coagulase.
Antibiotic-resistant strains (MRSA) have developed and are especially
prevalent in hospital related wound infections.
Doxycycline or Tetracycline is preffered for MRSA and acne because it
can penetrate sebaceous secretions. Superficial infections may also be due to Corynebacterium species common to the
skin. Leprosy is a chronic skin disease endemic to tropical and subtropical
areas, it is caused by Mycobacterium
leprae. Although it produces
mutilation it is rarely fatal. The drug
of choice is dapsone (DDS, 4,4’ diamindopdiphenyl sulfone). When drug resistance occurs, B653 (Lampren,
clofazimine) or rifampin may be used.
Plant extracts, mostly oils have long been used to treat leprosy with
limited success. As a prophylactic
contacts can be immunized with the tuberculosis vaccine BcG for
protection. Warts or verrucae are
transmitted from man to man. Infections
with this papovavirus is more common in children. The typical skin wart is a solid growth. Available therapies are destructive and
include excision, cryotherapy, electrodessication, curettage, and application
of chemicals such as trichloracetic acid or 40% salicyclic acid. A number of home remedies are used in
different parts of the world. In Asia, warts are removed with the milky latex
of the Euphorbia neriifolia (Euphorbiaceae).
In Mexico warts are removed by applying the caustic milky juice from Cecropia peltata (Moraceae), elsewhere
the similar milky latex of Tabernaemontana
citrifolia (Apocynaceae) is used.
The juice from leaves of Sempervivum
tectorum (hens-and-chickens) or the white latex from Taxacum officinale (dandelion) are popular (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 349,
350, 353).
External ear
infections are treated with topical antibiotics such as the plymyxins and
neomycin, in addition to the tetracyclines, the sulfonamides, chloramphenicol,
gentamicin, nitrofurazone and nystatin.
A 5% acqueous solution of acetic acid (vinegar) by lowering pH, will
prevent the growth of most external ear pathogens. Simple irrigation of an ear with dilute ethyl
alcohol (10-20%) in hypertonic saline or hydroaclcoholic solutions has been
found equally useful in removing the water causing swimmer’s ear or external
otitis. Infections of the external or
middle ear are usually of mixed microbial origin, although predominantly
streptococcal and staphylococcal, and they require broadspectrum antibiotic
therapy – tetracycline. Useful herbs
for making liquids to pour in infected ears are Achillea spp. (yarrow), Asarum
canadense (wild ginger) and Polygala
alba (white milkwort). In the treatment of glaucoma the alkaloid
pilocarpine, derived from leaflets of Pilocarpus
jaborandi, P. microphyllus, or P.
pinnatifolium (Rutaceae, shrubs native to Brazil) acts directly on
cholinergic receptor sites, thus micing the action of acetylcholine. Intraocular pressure is thereby reduced, and
despite its short term action, pilocarpine is the standard drug used for
initial and maintenance therapy in certain kind of primary glaucoma. A second short acting agent of this type is
physostigmine, obtained from the calabar bean, which acts indirectly by
inhibiting cholinesterase, may be used for the treatment of primary
glaucoma. There are number of
long-acting anticholinersterase agents (demecarium, isoflurophate) all are
synthetic and because of their toxicity they are generally used only when
short-term miotics have failed.
Anticholinergic drugs, when applied topically to the eye paralyze
accommodation and dilate the pupil (mydriasis).
They are used primarily in the treatment of some (secondary) glaucoma,
as an aid in refraction, and for other diagnostic purposes. Among the most successful the tropance
alkaloids atropine and scopolamine (hyoscine) derived originally fron several
solanaceous plants Atropa belladonna,
Duboisia myoporoides, and D. leichardtii whose leaves yield
atropine. When cocaine (Erythroxylum coca) is applied to the eye
it produces cydriasis vasoconstriction and other effects, and may also reduce
intraocular pressure. Most eye
infections are preferentially treated by topical applications of
medicaments. Topical therapy uses
antibiotics derived from the species of Bacillus,
such as polymyxin B (B. polymyxa),
bacitracin (B. subtilis) and
framicidin (B. brevis) as well as the
aminoglycoside neomycin sulfate from Streptomyces
fradiae. North American folklore
describes the use of many decoctions of roots, leaves and flowers as eyewashes
or poultices to treat sore of bruised eyes, Achillea
spp. (yarrow), Argemone intermedia
(prickly poppy), Hydrastic canadensis
(golden seal), Linum spp. (flaxseed)
put in eye to mop up foreign material and removed, Monotropa uniflora (Indian pipe), Prosopis spp. (mesquite), Saponaria
officinalis (soapwort) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 223, 224, 225)
The most widely
used antiseptics and disinfectants of the skin are alcohols, chlorine
containing compounds, iodine preparations, phenol compounds, inorganic and
organic mercurial and silver preparations, quaternary ammonium compounds, boric
acid, oxidizing agents, and aldehyde derivative. They kill by coagulating or denaturing
protoplasmic protein, by causing cell lysis, or by denaturing enzymes. Fagus
ferruginea (American beech) and F.
sylvatic (European beech) are sources of creosote, which is antiseptic and
is also used in the manufacture of certain soaps. Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol have been
used for treatment richettsial infections, which are characterized by rashes,
severe headache and fever and the fatality rate has reduced dramatically. Control of these disease may also involve
eradication of either the vector (louse, tick, flea) or reservoir (mouse,
rodent) in typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, vaccines have been used as
well, for such viral exanthems as measles, rubella, and smallpox, but none
exist for the more exotic, though severe, infections of the epidemic
hemorrhagic group such as dengue. Plants
used to Treat Generalized Skin Diseases and Complaints are Apiaceae, Chaerefolium sylvestre, Laserpitium
prutenicum, Apocynaceae, Rauvolfia
vomitoria, boraginaceae, Cordia
alliodora, Capparidaceae, Capparis
flexuosa, Clusiaceae, Calophyllum
inophyllum, C. wallichianum, Euphorbiaceae, Croton cortesianus, Fabaceae, Cassia alata, Copaifer reticulata, Flacourtiaceae, Caloncoba echinata, Juglandaceae, Juglans insularis, Liliacea, Curculigo
orchioides, Papaveraceae, Chelidonium
majus, Ranunculaceae, Clematis
dioica, C. thungergii, Rhamnaceae, Gouania
leptostachys, Scrophularieaceae, Veronica officinalis, Solanaceae, Urtica dioica, Xyridaceae, Xyris caroliniana (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 365,
352-354).
Herbal
Skin Care Products
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin B2 riboflavin |
Supports energy
metabolism, normal vision and skin health.
Found in spinach, broccoli, mushrooms, eggs, milk, liver, oysters and
clams. |
|
Vitamin B3 niacin |
Supports energy
metabolism, skin health, nervous system and digestive system. Found in spinach, potatoes, tomato juice,
lean ground beef, chicken breast, tuna (canned in water), liver and shrimp |
|
Vitamin A retinol |
Supports vision,
skin, bone and tooth growth, immunity and reproduction. Found in mango, broccoli, butternut squash,
carrots, tomato juice, sweet potatoes, pumpkin and beef liver. |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Asian Ginseng Panax ginseng |
Antistress, antifatigue, muscle strength and
recovery time, reaction time and alertness, intellectual performance, immune
function and cancer prevention, sexual function, most beneficial for people
over 40 |
|
Basil Ocimum spp. |
Antibacterial and juice or poultice relieves
itch and pain of insect bites and stings. |
|
Common garden thyme Thymus vulgaris and/or lemon thyme T. citriodorus |
Thyme is a powerful disinfectant and can be
used both externally (as a wash) and internally to help fight off
infection. |
|
Turmeric Curcuma longa) |
Curcumin is a powerful agent against several
types of cancers of the esophagus, breast, colon, prostate and skin and
inhibits the growth of lymphoma cells.
If the drying and warming is too much combine with a moisture
enhancing herb, such as marsh mallow root, or increase water intake. |
|
Aloe Vera Aloe barbadensis |
Healing agent for burns and blisters, that
prevents scarring. Applied topically,
the thick gel that oozes from the cut leaves is soothing and pain relieving,
and it contains rich concentrations of anthraquinones, which promote rapid
healing and tissue repair. |
|
Burdock Arctium lappa |
Can be used externally to treat eczema,
psoriasis, and other skin-related imbalances, such as teen acne. |
|
Calendula Calendula officinalis |
Applied topically it can help keep
infections at bay, and is a common ingredient in creams, salves and ointments
for treating bruises, burns, sores, skin ulcers, skin infections and rashes. |
|
Chickweed Stellaria media |
Excellent poultice for treating hot,
irritated rashes and skin problems. In
a salve, chickweed has soothing, healing effects on the skin and is among the
most effective remedies for relieving itchiness. It’s often used to treat rashes, eczema,
and nettle stings, and it’s gentle enough to use on diaper rash and other
skin irritations on infants and children.
Chickweed doesn’t dry or store well, to preserve fresh leaves it is
best to tincture them, freeze, or convert them into a salve. Perfectly safe, with no known toxicity. |
|
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis |
.
Common ingredient in disinfectant washes for eye infections such as
conjunctivitis, douches for vaginal infections, mouth washes for sore mouths
and gums, and topical treatments for eczema and psoriasis. The root is often powdered for use in
poultices for skin infections, abscesses and wounds. |
|
Marsh Mallow Althaea officinalis |
Externally marsh mallow is soothing to the
skin. A paste of marsh mallow mixed
with chamomile tea or water makes an excellent poultice for moisturizing dry
chapped skin. Marsh mallow is also
effective in the bath for soothing itchy, dry skin, including eczema. Marshmallow is good for keeping babies’
bottom soft and dry. |
|
Mullein Verbascum thapsus |
Mullein leaf also makes an effective
poultice for boils, glandular swelling, bruises and insect bites. When used
externally the tiny hairs on the underside of the leaves can be irritating to
the skin, in which case simply wrap the leaf in cheesecloth or muslin before
applying. |
|
Nettle Urtica spp. |
Nettle is rich in a full spectrum of
vitamins and minerals, especially iron and calcium, useful for treating skin
problems. |
|
Oats Avena spp. |
Oats are a wonderful topical remedy for
soothing skin irritation and itchiness.
A warm oatmeal bath is a well-known remedy for irritated, chapped, dry
skin or sunburn. Simply apply the
“milk” from the top of the oatmeal bowl and let it sit on your face for 20 to
30 minutes. |
|
Plantain Plantago spp. |
Plantain makes a great poultice. The leaves can be chopped, mashed and
placed directly over the problem area.
Or the leaves can be made into a strong tea and a cloth soaked in the
tea is placed directly over the area.
As a poultice plantain is a highly effective remedy for the bites and
stings of insects, boils and other eruptive skin disorders and any
deep-seated infection. Plantain has
such excellent drawing properties that it can be used to remove sliver that
are too deep to pull out. Soak the
area of the sliver in a very hot plantain tea for 20 to 30 minutes. You can increase the effectiveness by
adding a tablespoon or two of sea salt.
Then apply mashed plantain leaves and wrap in place. Change the poultice two or three times
during the day and repeat until the sliver is close enough to the surface of
the skin to pull out. Plantain also has
styptic and hemostatic properties, meaning that it can help check
bleeding. Place the mashed herbs
directly on the wound until the blood flow slows or stops. As a tea or tincture, plantain can also be
used to stanch heavy menstrual bleeding, it is more effective mixed with
yarrow and nettle (or shepherd’s purse).
It is also an excellent wound healer and shortens recovery time. |
|
Yarrow Achillea millefolium |
It’s often mixed with shepherd’s purse,
another powerful styptic, as first aid to stanch excessive bleeding, whether
from a cut, a deep wound, or a simple nosebleed. Just take several leaves mash them up and
apply a thick poultice to the wound. Yarrow is rich in volatile oils,
specifically chamazulene, camphor and linalool, which stimulate blood flow to
the surface of the skin and aid in elimination via the pores. This helps explain its long-standing
reputation as a diaphoretic, an herb that promotes sweating and thus can help
reduce fevers by “driving out” the heat and naturally cooling the body, used
in a bath. Yarrow also has
antispasmodic properties and is used to relieve both menstrual and stomach
cramps. It is often combined with
ginger for this purpose, whether taken internally or applied topically as a
poultice. |
Source: Gladstar ’12; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Aloe barbadensis (Liliaceae) and other aloes native
to Africa are attributed to heal the skin. Waetr soluble principles contain
anthraquinones, anthranols, anthrones and their glycosides, and most
significantly chrysophanic acid is thought to be beneficial to healing the
skin. Any number of herbs are used for
perfume and for scenting creams, salves, soaps, oils and shampoos. Volatile oils are the more usual scents
obtained from such well-known genera as Abies,
Angelica, Cedrus, Citrus, Eucalyptus, Gardenia, Hibiscus, Iris, Jasminum,
Lavandula, Mentha, Narcissus, Rosa, Rosamarinus, Salvia, Sassafras, Vanilla
and Viola. Natural shampoos usually
contain a foamy saponin. For example to brighten, stimulate, and strengthen
blonde hair, a rinse is made from equal parts of chamomile (Matricaria or Chamomilla) and yarrow (Achillea
millefolium). For brunettes a
mixture of rosemary (Rosmarinus
officialis) and garden sage (Salvia
officinalis) maintains a dark sheen and strengthens and stimulates hair
growth. The base of a homemade shampoo
might be the leaves of Saponaria
officinalis (soapwort). A sampling
of plants to wash and treat hair follows, Asparagus
africanus (Liliaceae), Canarium
oleosum (Surseraceae), Caryocar
glabrum (Caryocaraceae), Claytonia
sibirica (Portulacaceae), Coleus
aromaticus (Lamiaceae), Eclipta
erecta (Asteraceae), Euphorbia
thomsoniana (Euphorbiaceae), Eurotia
lanata (Chenopodiaceae), Fallugia
paradoxa (Rosaceae), Nardostachys
jatamansi (Valerianaceae), Pithecellobium
bigeminum (Fabaceae), Urtica dioica
(Urticaceae, commercial hair growth formulas), Vanilla griffithii (Orchidaceae), Vernonia missurica (Asteraceae) Yucca
glauca (Liliaceae) (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 336, 337, 338, 339, 340).
XII.
Neurological and
Psychiatric Medicine
The nervous system
coordinates and integrates the body’s many activities. The nervous system is composed of many
billions of nerve cells (neurons) which conduct the impulses, and an even
larger number of various supporting cells.
There are two main parts, the central nervous system, consisting of the
brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, comprising the spinal
and cranial nerves and the nerves associated with the autonomic nervous
system. The peripheral nervous system is
responsible for conducting messages from all sense organs of the body to the
central nervous system, but it also included two motor divisions, the somatic
(voluntary) motor system, which activates the voluntary (skeletal) muscles, and
other involuntary muscles, such as the heart and various glands. When you finhger touches a hot stove, a
temperature receptor in the skin is stimulated and initiates an impulse in an
afferent neuron. This neuron extends a
process into the spinal cord, where it ends in a synapse (junction with an
internuncial neuron). This neuron in
turn carries the impulse to an appropriate efferent neuron, which extends from
the spinal cord, and carries the impulse back to groups of muscle fibers in the
forearm and hand. Contraction of the
muscle fibers causes you to withdraw you finger from the hot object. The brain
and spinal cord function to correlate and integrate information. Within the brain such functions as
consciousness, memory and reason are thought to be due to the activity of the cerebral cortex, which receives and
interprets all the more complex sensations, sight, sound, odor, and touch and
completely overshadows the other regions of the brain. These include the thalamus, which serves largely as a sensory station functioning at
the subconscious level, and the hypothalamus,
important because it contains integration centers for the autonomic or visceral
functions (i.e. digestion, appetite, fear and rage, and centers that regulate
the activity of the pituitary gland, which is the mast coordinator of the
endocrine organs throughout the body and utilizes the bloodstream to transport
its secretory products to target areas).
In addition, there is the brain
stem, comprising the midbrain, pons, and medulla through which the main sensory pathways pass toward the thalamus, it contains the reticular activating system, responsible
for maintaining wakefulness and attention.
Finally the cerebellum is
concerned primarily with regulating motor activity and equilibrium. The other
part of the central nervous system is the spinal
cord. It serves to carry impulses to
and from the brain and the periphery and to carry the synaptic connections
between the sensory and motor neurons, which provide for various reflexes, and
the autonomic and somatic motor neurons (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 152, 153, 158).
The autonomic
nervous system (ANS) is the part of your nervous system that’s automatic. This part of the nervous system requires no
thoughts or calculations – kicks in immediately when you are faced with a
threat to your survival. The ANS has two
branches. The sympathetic (active) and
the parasympathetic (relax). The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous
system is frequently called you “fight or flight” system. With either response an entire cascade of
events occurs – the nerves in the brain quickly send signals along the nerves
in your body that constrict your blood vessels, immediately raising your blood
pressure. Your heart rate jumps and you can run faster. Arteries in your skin constrict, making it
less likely that you’ll bleed to death.
Blood is directed away from organs that really aren’t necessary, like
your kidneys and digestive tract. Your
pupils dilate and the hair on the back of your neck stands up and becomes
environmentally sensitive, in fractions of a second. The parasympathetic branch dominates when
nothing is perceived threatening in the environment. Blood is preferentially being delivered to
your stomach and intestines to help you absorb and digest your food. Your heart rate is probably a little slower
than usual. Your blood pressure is also
lower (Wilson ’06: 65-66). Anesthetic drugs depress vital functions of all
types of cells, but especially those of nervous tissue. General anesthetics depress the central
nervous system so that all sensitivity to pain is lost and the individual
suffers a lapse in consciousness. Local
anesthetics can applied directly to the restricted area at which relief of pain
is desired. Anesthetics such as
thiopentone sodium are delivered by intravenous injection, but more commonly
anesthesia is by inhalation using nitrous oxide (laughing gas), halothane, and
other drugs, often in combination.
Pre-anesthetic medication to relieve pain and to decrease preoperative
apprehension include morphine and morphine derivatives, scopolamine and others
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 167). A hypnotic is a
drug that produces sleep, a sedative is one used to relieve tension and
anxiety. The most commonly used
hypnotics and sedatives are the barbiturates, all derivates of barbituric acid
(synthesized from malonic acid and urea), all are almost insoluble in water,
consequently pass readily through the blood-brain barrier. Traditionally Datura stramoniu (jimsom weed) seeds and plant extracts were used
in Europe to treat mania, epilepsy, melancholy, rheumatism, convulsions, and
madness. Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip) to treat epilepsy. Cypripedium
spp. (lady’s slipper) were used as a nerve sedative to treat hysteria,
neuralgia and similar complaints and promote sleep. Passiflora incarnate (passion flower) was also a nerve sedative to
relieve insomnia and for treating certain types of convulsions and spasmodic
disorders. Valeriana officinalis and V.
wallichii depress the whole central nervous system and is prescribed by
some physicians to relieve hysteria, hypochondriasis, and nervous unrest as
well as for insomnia and as an anticonvulsant in epilepsy. Anemone
cylindrical (long-headed anemone), Arisaema
atrorubens (jack-in-the-pulpit, Indian turnip), Hedeoma pulegioides (pennyroyal), H. reverchoni, and Symplocarpus
foetidus (skunk cabbage) were used to treat headaches. Michella
repens (partridge berry) and Solanum
americanum (black nightshade) were used to treat insomnia (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
169).
1 in 200 people
are afflicted with the convulsive disease epilepsy. The disorder is characterized by severe
muscle spasms, loss of consciousness, and excessively abnormal discharges of
electricity (grand mal). In other types
of epilepsy (petit mal) convulsions do not occur and the encephalogram exhibits
alternate slow and fast waves (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 152, 153, 158, 164). The brain is very sensitive to high blood
pressure, both acutely (moment to moment) and chronically (over the long term). Stroke is very much like a heart attack in
that tissue dies as a result of interrupted blood flow. Stroke is the third leading cause of death,
coronary artery disease is the first.
Stroke, known as cerebrovascular accident, or CVA, can occur for two
reasons. The most common reason is that
a little chunk of cholesterol plaque breaks loose from a blood vessel supplying
the brain and travels up into smaller and smaller vessels, finally getting
stuck when the size of the chunk is bigger than the vessel it is traveling
in. This cuts off blood flow to a
segment of the brain. The resultant loss
of function is related to where in the brain this floating plug, or embolus,
ends up. It may cause damage in the area
that controls speech. It may create
problems in motor areas of the brain, causing loss of function of an arm, or a
leg, or both. Facial drooping on one
side may be the result of loss of function in the muscles of facial expression. Blood clots also embolize (break off and
travel elsewhere and pass through the heart, eventually moving into a vessel in
the brain. The floating material
eventually gets to a point in the brain circulation where it blocks flow and
tissue dies. These strokes, known as
embolic strokes, regardless of what the embolic material is, are by far the
most common type, accounting for about 85 percent of all strokes. The other type of stroke is caused by rupture
of one of the blood vessels in the brain.
The most common reason for this is high blood pressure. When pressure gets too high one of these
vessels may burst, causing bleeding or hemorrhage in the brain. Hemorrhagic stroke is usually more serious
and harder to recover form than embolic stroke.
Aneurysm, or weakening in the wall of the arteries (in the brain) can be
the source of hemorrhagic stroke. An
aneurysm looks a little like a bulge on the inner tube of a tire. This segment of the artery wall is thinner
and weaker, and can rupture (Wilson ’06: 35, 36).
There are four million Americans currently diagnosed with Alzheimer’s. Age-associated
memory impairment (AAMI) has no connection to a specific disease or condition.
Nevertheless, it affects nearly 6 percent of the total population and 18.5
percent of people over age 50. This
number climbs even higher with advancing years, as about 40 percent of those
between ages 60 and 7 show signs of AAMI.
Alzheimer’s affects about 15 million people worldwide. In the United
States, doctors diagnose about 360,000 new cases each year, and that number is
rising. Roughly 47 percent of Americans
develop the disease after age 85, thought about 3 percent get it by age 65
(Brown ’04: 84. 95). Mad Cow
disease is a member of a family of diseases called transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies, TSEs, seen in various animal species including humans, sheep,
cows, mink, der and cats – for example, Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease (CJD) in
humans, scrapie in sheep, chronic wasting syndrome in deer and elk, and bovine
spongiforn encephalopathy of BSE in cows.
They attack the central nervous system, causing disintegration of the
brain; they have a long incubation period (measured in years if not decades)
between the time when infection first occurs and the appearance of symptoms;
they are always fatal; and they are transmitted by the eating of animals or
animal parts; especially brains and spinal cords. More than 167,000 British dairy cattle died
between 1985 and 1995. In 2000 to 2001
between 4,700 and 9,800 French cattle had become infected with Mad Cow disease
and up to 100 of those had entered the human food chain. When it became clear the disease had spread
to Spain and Germany, the European Union called for the destruction of up to
another 2 million cattle. European beef
consumption plummeted. The infectious
agent of Mad Cow disease remains infectious even after exposure for an hour to
a temperature of 680 degrees – enough to melt lead – and can withstand
antibiotics, boiling water, bleach, formaldehyde and a variety of solvents,
detergents, and enzymes known to destroy most bacteria and viruses. The expected rate of occurrence of CJD (the
human variation of Mad Cow disease) has been 1 in 1 million people. Yet one study found that people diagnosed
with Alzheimer’s disease, whose symptoms were difficult to distinguish from
CJD) were examined after death, 5.5 percent of the presumed Alzheimer’s victims
were found actually to have CJD. Another
study counted 13 percent (Robbins ’01: 144, 145, 146, 149, 150).
Parkinson’s disease strikes about two out of a thousand people in
the general population and about five per thousand among those fifty and
older. It is uncommon, though not
unheard of, in children and young adults.
PD is equally common among men and women and occurs in all ethnic
groups. About 60,000 new cases are
diagnosed annually in the United States alone.
At least a million Americans have been diagnosed with Parkinson’s
disease, and research suggests that there might be twice as many undiagnosed
cases. Parkinson’s
disease is a progressive brain disorder.
Doctors often call is a disorder of the motor system which is the nerve
system that controls body movement.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) occurs when brain cells or neurons, decline and
cause a deficiency of the brain chemical dopamine. This chemical (one of the brain
neurotransmitters) affects the part of the brain associated with muscle
control, attention, learning and the brain’s pleasure and reward system. Low dopamine levels bring about the symptoms
of PD. Symptoms may vary from person to person.
The tremor usually begins in the hand but may also begin in the foot of
the jaw. About 75 percent of people with
PD develop tremor; in the early stages of the disease, the tremor affects only
one side of the body. The remaining 25
percent of PD patients never develop significant tremor. In a person with PD,
muscles of the limbs and trunk may remain constantly tense and contracted. This may cause aching, stiffness, weakness,
and jerky movements. Called
bradykinesia, slowness of movement is an unpredictable and frustrating symptom
of PD. One moment you move easily, the
next you need help. Impaired balance and
coordination. Physiologically, Parkinson’s manifests as a diminishment of the
dark pigmentation in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. For instance, some
tranquilizers (haloperidol, thioridazine, chlorpromazine) and drugs used to
treat high blood pressure that contain resperine may interfere with the
dopamine in the brain and cause symptoms of PD.
Also, proonged use of antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs such as those
used to treat schizophrenia, may cause a type of Parkinsonism, but it is
reversible with certain Parkinson’s treatments such as Cogentin (benztropine)
and Symmetrel (amantadine). The gold
standard for the treatment of Parkinson’s is Levodopa
combined with a second drug, carbidopa, which keeps levodopa from “breaking
down” before it reaches the brain, and prolongs the benefits of the drug by
hours (Cram et al ’09: 15, 12, 4, 6).
The DSM-IV lists more than 330 different types of psychiatric
disorders. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs after a traumatic event
in which someone experiences or witnesses actual or threatened death or serious
injury and feels intense fear, helplessness, or horror as a result. Long after the trauma, the person keeps
reliving it I the form of recurring memories and images, dreams, and
flashbacks. The person also has intense
mental and physical reactions to anything that somehow evoke the original event. Between 10 and 30 percent of trauma survivors
develop PTSD (Brown ’04: 143). Major depression is a medical disorder that
lasts at least two weeks and produces a combination of physical and emotional
symptoms that make it very difficult to function in life. At the heart of clinical depression is a loss
of pleasure in activities that used to be fun or exciting. Also, people often have feelings of sadness,
hopelessness and pessimism. These
symptoms are accompanied by a wide variety of physical symptoms such as
difficulty sleeping, poor concentration and memory, low energy and change in
appetite. People who are depressed may
have a hard time remembering times when things went well, and may have a hard
time imagining things going well in the future, or that depression is
treatable. Anxiety is a problem for many
patients with bipolar disorder apart from their mood episodes. Even for those patients without anxiety
problem between episodes, anxiety symptoms very frequently accompany episodes
of depression or mania. In addition,
sleep problems are common in depression, hypomania, and mania. Within the anxiolytic class, the most
frequently used medications are benzodiazepines. These medications include lorazepam (Ativan),
clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium) and alprazolam (Xanax) and they are
used to help treat anxiety and sleeplessness in bipolar disorder. All
benzodiazepines have the potential to cause physical and psychological
dependence or addiction. The potential
for abuse seems to be greatest with drugs that produce a quick effect and that
are quickly removed from your blood stream, such as alprazolam (Xanax). The potential for abuse seems to be least
with benzodiazpeines that have a slower effect and spend a longer time in your
blood stream, such as clonazepam (Klonopin).
Most standard antidepressant medications appear to have excellent
effects on reducing anxity, but they require weeks of consistent use to become
effective and may cause worsening of bipolar disorder in some patients (Otto et
al ’11: 25).
Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression, is a common
psychiatric disorder. It is one of
several conditions referred to as mood disorders, which are diagnosed based on
the occurrence of periods of mood disruption.
A mood episode refers to a syndrome of symptoms that occur during the
same time period. Mood episodes can be
understood much like a play with a cast of characters and supporting
actors. The show can be said to continue
for as long as the lead player and/or the supporting cast maintain a
significant presence on the stage. Mania
is more than just having a lot of energy or feeling great about yourself. Mania is a serious condition that is diagnosed
when a person experiences several symptoms associated with an elevated or high
mood that go beyond what most people experience. Mania includes symptoms such as increased
energy, racing thoughts, inflated self-esteem, a decreased need for sleep,
abnormal irritability, extreme happiness, poor judgment, and over-participation
in risky activities. These symptoms must
be present during a period of at least one week to be considered mania. Approximately
1-5% of adults in the population have bipolar disorder. In the United States alone, more than 10
million people have bipolar disorder (Otto et
al ’11: 14, 9, 5, 6). People with
bipolar disorder have frequent contraindications with herbal medicine, namely
Rhodiola rosea, but generally they tend to have an adverse reaction to
stimulants and depressants of all sorts.
Lithium carbonate is known to be effective for the treatment of manic
depression, but it causes severe birth defects HA-18-4-12.
Antipsychotics were first developed as treatment for the hallucination
and delusions caused by schizophrenia.
Antipsychotics are frequently prescribed in the context of a manic
episode and may be especially helpful in clearing up disorganized or distorted
thinking, as well as hallucinations. A
common property of antipsychotic drugs is the ability to block receptors for
the chemical, or neurotransmitter, called dopamine. Too much dopamine in your brain may
contribute to some of the symptoms of mania.
You may hear some of your physicians use the term neuroleptics. These medications are the same as
antipsychotics. Older drugs such as
chlorpromazine (thorazine), thioridazine (Mellaril), perphenazine (Trilafon),
haloperidol (Haldol), or thioxixene (Navane) are dopamine receptor blockers. As a class, neuroleptics, both antipsychotics
and sleep aids, are considered helpful for acute mania, but they are together
the leading cause of fatal drug overdose reported to the National Poison
Control Center. Early in the course of
treatment patients treated with neuroleptics may experience muscle stiffness,
tremors, and sometimes restlessness.
Long-term use of neuroleptic drugs is associated with potentially
irreversible movement disorders such as tardive dyskinesia (TD), a disorder
characterized by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements. New atypical
antipsychotics approved by the FDA for the treatment of acute mania are
risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetipaine (Seroquel),
ziprasidone (Geodon), aripiprazole (Abilify), and asenapine (Saphris). Similar ot the older drugs, these newer drugs
also block dopamine receptors but with much less potency than the older
neuroleptic medications. The atypical
antipsychotics also block some receptors for a neurotransmitter called
serotonin. Drugs with this combination
of low potency dopamine blockade and serotonin blockade are much less likely to
cause the permanent tardive dyskenisia seen with older neuroleptics, but
instead instantly, in patients who have not been gradually introduced to the
“effective dose”, causes Parkinson’s like extra-pyramidal symptoms ,that can be
treated with Parkinson’s drugs Amantadine (Symmetrel) and Cogentin
(benztropine). Risperidone (Risperdal) stands out as being the antipsychotic
least likely to cause any dangerous side-effects (Otto et al ’11:22, 23).
Prescription psychiatric medicine,
hypnotics (sleep aids) and antipsychotics are the most frequent cause of fatal
drug overdose reported to Poison Control Centers (Bronstein et al ’11: Table
18). Extreme
caution must be taken in regards to the use and withdrawal from psychiatric
drugs. Since the smoking lounge was
prohibited in high schools in the 1980s, there has been a dramatic rise in
coercive psychiatric drug pharmaculture amongst juveniles to a highly illegal
level in foster care. 10 different daily
psychiatric medications is not unusual in special education schools. Over the past decade the life expectancy of people
treated for mental illness in the public health system has declined from 15
years less than average to 25 years less than the average American. The mentally ill suffer much higher mortality
rates from cardiovascular disease and high incidence of diarrheal
diseases. The
number of fatal methadone overdoses similarly increased from 500 in 1999 to
5,000 in 2005 for which reason methadone clinics must afford their clients 1 mL
injectable Narcan, to reverse respiratory depression. The marketing of Zyprexa in the 1990s, that causes diabetes mixed with alcohol, has
doubled the number of obese Americans who live with diabetes. Similarly, abuse of antipsychotics, which
have been engineered to cause Parkinsonian symptoms in one regular dose,
formerly taking a year to cause a permanent untreatable tardive dyskinesia,
seem to be the leading suspect in the dramatic 20 percent increase in autism diagnosis
over the past decade, whose neuroleptic tics might be treatable with just one
dose of anti-Parkinsonian agent like Cogentin mg. ie. buy
Amantadine (Symmetrel) online. In 2008 one child in 88 received a diagnosis pervasive development
disorder, known as autism spectrum disorders, by age 8, compared with about one
in 110 two years earlier. The estimated rate in 2002 was about one in 155. These neurological tics are theoretically
caused by exposure to at least one regular (or baby) dose of atypical
antipsychotics, symptoms that formerly took a year to manifest as the permanent
syndrome of tardive dyskinesia. Ritalin and other stimulants are known to cause
tics called Tourette’s syndrome. (HA-18-4-12: 13). One body-weight appropriate dose of
antiparkinsonian medicine, Cogentin (benztropine) or Amantadine (Symmetrel)
should be tried. The danger of psychiatric prescription drugs is an excellent
reason to treat mental health with good food and herbal teas.
Herbal
Neurological and Psychiatric Remedies
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
B1 thiamin |
Supports energy
metabolism and nerve function. Found
in spinach, green peas, tomato juice, watermelon, sunflower seeds, lean ham,
lean pork chops, and soy milk. |
|
B3 niacin |
Supports energy
metabolism, skin health, nervous system and digestive system. Found in spinach, potatoes, tomato juice,
lean ground beef, chicken breast, tuna (canned in water), liver and shrimp. |
|
B12 |
Used in new cell
synthesis, helps break down fatty acids and amino acids, supports nerve cell
maintenance. Found in meats, poultry,
fish, shellfish, milk, eggs and Bifidobacterium
spp. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Sodium |
Maintains fluid and
electrolyte balance, supports muscle contraction and nerve impulse
transmissions. Found in salt, soy
sauce, bread, milk and meats. |
|
Potassium |
Maintains fluid and
electrolyte balance, cell integrity, muscle contractions and nerve impulse
transmission. Found in potatoes, acorn squash, artichoke, spinach,
broccoli, carrots, green beans, tomato juice, avocado, grapefruit juice,
watermelon, banana, strawberries, cod and milk. |
|
Magnesium |
Supports bone
mineralization, protein building, muscular contraction, nerve impulse
transmission, immunity. Found in
spinach, broccoli, artichokes, green beans, tomato juice, navy beans, pinto
beans, black-eyed peas, sunflower seeds, tofu, cashews and halibut. |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Rosemary Rosmarinus
officinalis |
Rosemary is brain tonic improving
concentration and memory. It enhances
the cellular uptake of oxygen and is a mild and uplifting stimulant that
eases headaches and migraines and mild to moderate depression. |
|
Marjoram and Oregano |
Marjoram
and Oregano are both used to relieve nervousness, irritability, and insomnia
due to tension and anxiety. They are
both powerful antiseptic and disinfectant herbs that effectively fight
bacterial and viral infections. |
|
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria recutita and related species |
Useful for going into a deep, restful
sleep. Chamomile is a popular remedy
for calming colic and childhood digestive issues. Tea can be added to bathwater for a
soothing bath. It makes excellent
massage oil for relieving stress, anxiety and muscle soreness. Some people are allergic to chamomile. |
|
Jimsom
weed Datura stramoniu |
Seeds
and plant extracts were used in Europe to treat mania, epilepsy, melancholy,
rheumatism, convulsions, and madness. |
|
Lavender Lavandula officinalis, L. angusfolia |
Lavender is profoundly relaxing, calming and
uplifting. It is a mild
antidepressant. Combine with feverfew,
it helps alleviate migraines and headaches.
It is one of the best herbs to use in the bath to relieve tension,
stress and insomnia. Try a bath with a
few drops of lavender essential oil or a handful of lavender blossoms tied in
a muslin bag, added to warm water. Use
as massage oil. Lavender is generally
considered safe, though it’s recommended that pregnant women avoid using it
internally in large amounts. |
|
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis |
Remedy for heart disease (and heartache),
depression and anxiety, nervous disorders and a host of viral and bacterial
infections. Paralesus called lemon
balm the “elixir of life” and Dioscorides used it for “sweetening the
spirit”. In the 1600s herbalist John
Evelyn wrote “balm is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory and
powerfully chasing away melancholy”. A
tea made of lemon balm and chamomile is an excellent remedy for stomach
distress and nervous exhaustion. It
also functions as a mild sedative, especially helpful for insomnia caused by
grief and sadness. Lemon balm is high
on the list of herbs used to treat heartache and depression. Lemons balm soothes and calms a restless
child. |
|
Oats Avena sativa, A. fatua |
The milky green tops are especially renowned
for their demulcent (soothing) and nourishing effect on the central nervous
system effectively relieving all manner of nervous stress, exhaustion,
irritation and anxiety. Valuable for
multiple sclerosis, in which the mycelium sheath surrounding the nerve
endings has been damaged, oats reduce fatigue, strengthen the muscles and
improve nerve function. In combination
with lemon balm milky oats can also be used to counteract hyperactivity in
children and adults. |
|
Golden Root Rhodiola rosea |
Antistress, antifatigue, anti-arrhythmic,
antibiotic, energy, physical and mental performance, strength, recovery time,
work capacity, alertness, emory, accuracy, learning ability, sexual function,
depression, anxity, post-traumatic stress disorder, menopausal symptoms, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome,
Parkinson’s, stroke, traumatic brain injury, altitude sickness, liver
detoxification and protection, side effects of chemotherapy. Agitation or anxiety (occasional), intense
dreams, headaches (rare). Increase effect of other stimulants. Bipolar disorder (manic depression) – use
with caution, and only when condition is under good control with mood
stabilizers, pregnancy and breastfeeding unknown. |
|
St. John’s Wort Hypericum perforatum |
St. John’s wort can be very effective for
treating mild depression, anxiety, stress, tension, nerve damage, and
seasonal affective disorder (SAD). To
be effective against stress and depression, St. John’s wort needs to be taken
over a 2 to 3 week period, and it is often cycled over several months to treat
chronic depression and stress.
Hypericin, one of the herb’s active constituents, increases the
metabolism of serotonin and melatonin, which aid the body’s ability to
receive and store light. Hyperforin,
another important constituent, contributes to emotional stability by slowing
the uptake of those “feel-good” neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin
and noradrenaline, allowing them to circulate longer in the body. |
|
Spearmint Mentha spicata |
Blend it in equal proportions with lemon
balm to calm hyperactivity and anxiety in children. |
|
Valerian Valeriana officinalis |
Valerian root is one the safest and most
powerful herbal nervines, used for all manner of stress, insomnia and
anxiety. Valerian is a remedy
primarily for stress, tension, insomnia and nervous system disorders. Studies show that it works by depressing
activity in the central nervous system and relaxing the smooth muscles of the
uterus, colon and bronchial passages.
Two compounds, valerenic acid and valerenal, have ben found to induce
sleep and indirectly raise levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid, a
neurotransmitter that decreases central nervous-system activity and acts as a
muscle relaxant. Valerian is effective both as a long-term nerve tonic and as
a remedy for acute nerve problems such as headaches and pain. For those people for whom valerian works,
it works well. Some people find it
irritating and stimulating, rather than relaxing. The root is rich in isovalerenic and
valerenic acids, which give it powerful nervine properties. Because of the volatile nature of its
aromatic oils, valerian root is generally infused rather than decocted. Generally considered safe. If you take too much valerian you’ll begin
to have rubbery-like feeling in your muscles, like they are too relaxed, or a
feeling of heaviness. Cut back the
dosage so that you feel relaxed but alert.
Avoid taking large doses of valerian for an extended period of time,
instead, use modest doses for just 2 to 3 weeks, with a week’s break before
you begin taking the doses again. |
Source: Gladstar ’12; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
5 HTP is a highly recommended and sold over the counter treatment for
depression. 5HTP is a serotonin
precursor and can help the body to make more serotonin and leave the available
serotonin in synapses for a longer period of time, therefore directly affecting
mood and warding off depressive symptoms.
5 HTP can also help with insomnia, agitation, fatigue and lack of
motivation. It is often helpful in
chronic pain situations because it increases sleep needed for healing, improves
mood and decreases sensation of pain.
Again 5 HTP should not be used with other antidepressant medications,
especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs. 5 HTP 100 mg two
times daily. SAMe can be helpful in the
treatment of depression. It acts as
methyl donor and can help the body to complete and maximize its nerve
connections in the brain. SAMe has antioxidant
activity therefore will help to reduce free radical damage in the body. SAMe can help the body’s methyl metabolism
improve, therefore functioning to increase energy, improve cognitive function
and decrease pain. SAMe has also been
used to treat osteoarthritis, response tends to be noticed within the first
month of use. Insomnia, anxiety or mania
states can be associated with overuse of SAMe.
Do not use SAMe with other antidepressant medications, especially
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It may cause life-threatening symptoms
(including agitation, tremors, anxiety, rapid heartbeats, difficulty breathing,
diarrhea, shivering, muscle stiffness and excessive sweating). SAMe dosage 400 mg daily (HA-18-4-12 : 12).
XIII. Osteo-Arthritis Treatment
Arthritis and
rheumatic conditions affected an estimated 43 million Americans in the late 1990s
and this number is expected to increase to an estimated 60 million by the year
2020. Approximately 21 million people
have osteo-arthritis (OA), 3.7 million have fibromyalgia and 2.1 million have
rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
Non-modifiable risk factors are female sex, older age, and genetic
predisposition. Modifiable risk factors
are obesity, joint injuries, infections, and certain occupations, such as
shipyard work, farming, heavy industry, and occupations with repetitive knee
bending. The demographic factors
associated with the various forms of arthritis include lower levels of formal
education and lower income. Arthritis
and rheumatic diseases significantly limit the ability of more than seven
million Americans to participate in such daily activities as going to work or
school and housekeeping. When the rank
and prevalence of chronic conditions causing disability in the United States in
1991-1992 were analyzed arthritis was the leading cause of disability. Of those individuals, 17.1% reported arthritis
or rheumatism, 13.5% reported back or spine problems, and 11.1% reported heart
trouble as being associated with their disability. Low back and neck pain are second only to
the common cold as the most common affliction of mankind. Approximately 10%-20% of the US population
has back or neck pain each year. Low
back pain is the fifth most common reason for visiting a physician, according
to a US Ambulatory Care Survey. As many as 90% of people with low back or neck
pain have a mechanical reason for their discomfort. Characteristically, mechanical disorders are
exacerbated by certain physi9cal activities and are relieved by others, and
most of these disorders resolved over a short period of time. More than 50% of all patients will improve
after one week, and up to 90% are better at eight weeks. However, a recurrence of spinal pain occurs
in up to 75% of people over the next year.
Back pain will persist for one year and longer in 10% of the spinal pain
population. (Klippel et al ’01: 1, 156).
More and more
people are employing complementary and alternative medicine to treat their
illness - spirituality, meditation, prayer, exercise, acupuncture, massage,
herbs, supplements, and vitamins. Vitamins C and D have been hypothesized to
benefit patients with OA. Except for the prevention and treatment of gout there
is no definitive scientific evidence that what an individual eats can cause or
cure arthritis, but weight loss is highly recommended and the most effective
weight loss diet is a sugar-free vegan diet. Pineapple, fish oil, flaxseed,
gelatin, ginseng and green tea are all good for arthritis related complaints.
Vitamin D is highly recommended to build bone mass, prevent bone loss and
muscle weakness, slow OA progression and aid in calcium absorption. Calcium supplements are only recommended for
women past menopause (Klippel et al ’01: 625-682). More than 2,400 years ago, the Greeks used
extracts of Salix alba and bark for
several other species of willow to treat pain, as well as gout and other illnesses. Equally long ago, the North American ndians
were using willow to relieve pain and to fight fever, the Houmas and Alabamas
used a decoction of the roots and bark of S.
nigra for internal consumption and for bathing to relieve fevers; the
Chickasaws used the roots of S. lucida
for headaches, and the Montagnais steeped its leaves and drank the liquid to
relieve their headaches. They also made
a mash of the bark, which was strapped to the forehead to relieve pain. The effect of the willow was largely due to
the activity of a glycoside, salicin, which was first isolated in the
nineteenth century from numerous species of Salix (e.g. S. alba, S. helix, S. penandra, S. praecox, S. fragilis, and S. purpurea). Salicin can also be obtained from
poplars. Salicin is readily hydrolyzed
to saligenin, which has some use in medicine as an analgesic. Following ingestion, salicin is probably
decomposed to salicylic acid. Salicylic
acid is an active disinfectant, probably superior to phenol in its antiseptic
properties, and an anti-rheumatic, but it caused gastrointestinal
complaints. Bayer rediscovered
acetylsalicylic acid in 1899 and created Aspirin. Aspirin is widely used medically as an
antipyretic, facilitating the dissipation of heat through increased peripheral
blood flow and sweating, an analgesic agent, probably through its depressant
action on the central nervous system and an anti-inflammatory agent for
treatment of rheumatic fever, acute intraocular inflammation, lumbago,
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and a host of other conditions commonly
lumped together as rheumatism (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 151, 152).
Osteoporosis is a
skeletal disease, marked by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration
that leads to an increased susceptibility to fracture. Older white women are at greatest risk, but
all elderly women and elderly men may be affected. Approximately 90% of hip and spine
fractures, 70% of wrist fractures and 50% of all other ractures in white women
aged 65-84 years are attributable to osteoporosis. The risk of hip fracture rises exponentially
with age and is twice as great in women as it is in men. Smokers have lower
bone mass, master bone loss, and an increased risk of hip and vertebral
fracture compared with nonsmokers. This increased risk is not explained by a
lower body weight in smokers, but may be due in part to poorer neuromuscular
function. According to the Third
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 17% (5 million) of US white
women aged 50 or older have osteoarthritis, and another 42% (12 million) have
osteoporosis, another 28% (900,000) and 37% (300,000) respectively have severe
osteopenia or osteopenia. Avoid cigarette smoking and other possible negative
factors, such as high intake of caffeine, protein and phosphorous. Vitamin D is
essential for absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract and
assimilation into bone. Calcium
supplements are only recommended for women past menopause Weight bearing
exercise, such as walking, is important. Bisphosphonates such as Alendronate,
Risedronate, Etidronate and Pamidronate as well as Clacitonin, Estrogen and
Selective Estrogen-Receptor Modulator are used in treatment (Klippel ’01: 511,
514, 516, 625, 525-526).
Gout is a
heterogeneous group of diseases resulting from monosodium urate (MSU) crystal
deposition in tissues or from supersaturation of uric acid in extracellular
fluids. Clinical manifestations include
1) recurrent attacks of articular and periarticular inflammation, also called
gouty arthritis, 2) acculumulation of articular, osseous, soft tissue, and
cartilaginous crystalline deposits, called tophi, 3) uric acid calculi in the
urinary tract, and 4) interstitial nephropathy with renal function impairment, called
gouty nephrophathy. The metabolic
disorder underlying gout is hyperuricemia, which is defined as serum urate
concentration more than two standard deviations above the mean, more than 7.0
mg/dL for men and 6.0 mg/dL for women.
By itself, hyperuricemia is not sufficient for the expression of gout,
and asymptomatic hyperuricemia in the absence of gout is not a disease. Gout
predominantly is a disease of adult men, with a peak incidence in the fifth
decade. As cited by Hippocrates, the
disease rarely occurs in men before adolescence or in women before
menopause. It is a common disorder that
frequently results in significant short-term disability, occupational
limitations and utilization of medical services. In 1986 the prevalence of self-reported gout in
the United States was estimated to be 13.6 per 1,000 men and 6.4 per 1,000
women. The prevalence has increased over
the past few decades in the United States, as well as in other countries that
have a high standard of living. Urate
crystals are able to initiate and maintain intense attacks of acute
inflammation because of their capacity to stimulate the release of numerous
inflammatory mediators. The initial attack usually is monarticular, and in one
half of patients, involves the first metatarsophalangeal joint. This joint eventually is affected in 90% of
individuals with gout. Other joints that
frequently are involved in this early stage are the midfoot, ankles, heels, and
knees, and less commonly the wrists, fingers and elbows. The intensity of pain characteristically is
very severe, but may vary among subjects.
Classically, patients find walking difficult or impossible when lower
extremity joints are involved. For many
physicians NSAIDs are the first choice to treat acute gout. Colchicine effectively treats acute gout,
providing pain relief within 48 hours for most patients. Corticosteroids or adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) can be used for patients in whom colchicine or NSAIDs are
contraindicated or ineffective. Patients
with acute gout typically receive daily doses of prednisone (20-40 mg). Diet and lifestyle modification may reduce
the frequency of acute attacks and decrease or negate the need for
medication. Weight loss may reduce serum
urate, and dietary purine restriction may also be helpful – no protein. Alcohol should be avoided (Klippel et al ’01:
307, 311, 313, 321).
Mortality rates
among adults who contract nongonococcal joint infections range from 10% to
greater than 50%. Among those who are
accurately diagnosed and promptly treated, full recovery is possible, but poor
outcome is common among those with preexisting arthritis, especially rheumatoid
arthritis. Septic arthritis occurs most
commonly as a result of bacteremic seeding of the affected joint from an
extra-articular site of infection. For
example, Staphylococcus aureus in a
knee joint may be the result of an infected skin lesion, or Escherichia coli septic arthritis may
result from pyelonephritis caused by the E.
coli microorganism. Among
nongonococcal causes of acute bacterial arthritis, the Gram positive cocci are
the major pathogens. The relative
frequencies of the causative micro-organisms for nongonococcal septic arthritis
in adults are 75%-80% Gram positive cocci and 15%-20% Gram negative
bacilli. S. aureus is the most common infective agent in both native and
prosthetic joints. S. epidermidis is common in prosthetic infections but almost
unheard of in native joint infections.
In children aged 6 months to 5 years, Haemophilus influenza was a significant cause of septic arthritis
in children until the HIB vaccine came into use. With the decline in H. influenza septic
arthritis, other microorganisms, such as Kingella
kingae, may be seen more commonly.
Acute arthritis has long been recognized as a feature of some viral
infections – human parvovirus B19, hepatitis viruses, rubella Virus,
retroviruses, alphaviruses and others. The term chondrocalcinosis refers to the
presence of calcium containing crystals detected as radiodensities in articular
cartilage. The term pseudogout refers to
the acute, gout like attacks of inflammation that occur in some people with
CPPD crystal deposition disease.
Pathologic surveys indicate that about 4% of the adult population have
articular CPPD deposits at the time of death.
Radiologic surveys show a steadily increasing prevalence with age, and
by their ninth decade, nearly 50% of individuals have chondrocalcinosis. Sulfasalazine and methotrexate and
particularly highly recommended is metronidazole (Flgyl ER) may be beneficial in
peripheral joint disease, and bursitis but have little, if any effect on spinal
disease. Take metronidazole (Flagyl ER)
before undergoing elective hip and knee arthroplasty. Corrective spinal surgery has become a safer
prospect since the advent of preoperative MRI scanning, but leaves people in a
permanently diminished athletic capacity (Klippel et al ’01: 259-260, 265-268,
299, 254).
Nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and
antipyretic agents used to reduce pain, decrease gelling, and improve function
in people with many different forms of arthritis. There are at least 20 different NSAIDs
currently available in the United States.
In addition, cyclooxygenase -2 (COX-2) specific inhibitors are available
with similar efficacy but significantly decreased gastrointestinal and platelet
effects. Approximately 60 million NSAID
prescriptions are written each year in the United States, the number for
elderly patients exceeds that for younger patients by approximately 3.6
times. Aspirin, ibuprofen,
acetominophen, naproxen, and ketoprofen are available over the counter. The primary mechanism of action of the NSAIDs
is the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis for the E. series. These prostanoic acids are proinflammatory,
increase vascular permeability, and increase sensitivity to the release of
bradykinins. NSAIDs inhibit COX and
thereby reduce the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin. COX-1 helps maintain the integrity of the
gastric and duodenal mucosa, is expressed constitutively in most tissues, and
is inhibited by all NSAIDs, many of the toxic effects of the NSAIDs on the GI
tract are attributed to its inhibition.
COX-2 is an inducible enzyme and is usually undetectable in most
tissues. Its expression is increased
during states of inflammation or, experimentally, in response to mitogenic
stimuli. The expression of COX-2 is
inhibited by corticosteroids. COX-2
activity is important for modulating glomerular blood flow and renal
electrolyte and water balance. Celecoxib
and rofecoxib are as effective at inhibiting OA pain, dental pain, and the pain
and inflammation associated with RA as is naproxen at 500 mg twice per day,
ibuprofen at 800 mg three times per day, and diclofenac at 75 mg twice per day.
NSAIDs are metabolized predominantly in
the liver and exreted in the urine.
NSAIDs may produce toxic effects in any organ system, hepatoxicity,
renal adverse effects, prostaglandin-related adverse events, platelet
aggregation, neutropenia, ulcers and gastrointestinal effects can are all known
adverse events. Corticosteroid use is
one of the most important and controversial subjects in rheumatology. The discovery of the dramatic
anti-inflammatory effects of corticosteroids in the setting of treating rheumatoid
arthritis won a Nobel Prize in 1950. The
realization, however, that long-term supraphysiologic therapy produced
devastating side effects led to polarized views of the role of corticosteroids
in the therapy of rheumatic diseases – Daily or alternate day high-dose oral
treamtnet (e.g. 60 mg of prednisone daily for up to one month, followed by
tapering to the lowest possible dose that maintains disease control is often
employed in thrombocytopenia or pleurisy. Corticosteroids are not merely
powerful anti-inflammatory drugs, but rather are essential hormones involved in
maintaining homeostasis of numerous physiologic functions. Both corticosteroid deficiency and excess
have pathophysiologic consequences (Klippel et al ’01: 583, 585, 588, 595).
Herbal
Remedies for Osteo-Arthritis
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin A retinol |
Supports vision,
skin, bone and tooth growth, immunity and reproduction. Found in mango, broccoli, butternut squash,
carrots, tomato juice, sweet potatoes, pumpkin and beef liver. |
|
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid |
Collagen synthesis, amino acid metabolism,
helps iron absorption, immunity, antioxidant . Found in spinach, broccoli, red bell peppers,
snow peas, tomato juice, kiwi, mango, orange, grapefruit juice, strawberries
and rosehips. |
|
Vitamin
D |
Promotes bone
mineralization. Self-synthesis via sunlight also found in fortified milk, egg
yolk, liver and fatty fish. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Calcium |
Formation of bones
and teeth in conjunction with Vitamin D.
Only recommended for women in post-menopausal women. Found in milk,
yogurt, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheese, tofu, sardines, green beans, spinach
and broccoli. |
|
Phosphorus |
Formation of cells,
bones and teeth, maintains acid-base balance.
Found in all animal foods (meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk). |
|
Magnesium |
Supports bone
mineralization, protein building, muscular contraction, nerve impulse
transmission, immunity. Found in spinach, broccoli, artichokes, green beans,
tomato juice, navy beans, pinto beans, black-eyed peas, sunflower
seeds, tofu, cashews and halibut. |
|
Fluoride |
Involved in the
formation of bones and teeth, helps to make teeth resistant to decay. Found in fluoridated drinking water, tea
and seafood. |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Cayenne Capsicum annuum and related species |
Used topically to relieve pain from
arthritis, bursitis, and muscle and joint aches. Active ingredient in several OTC
creams. |
|
Ginger Zingiber officinale |
It
contains a proteolytic enzyme that has been shown to reduce inflammation and
help repair damaged joints and cartilage tissue. It improves circulation in the pelvis. |
|
Rosemary Rosmarinus
officinalis |
Rosmaricine is a mild analgesic and
antioxidant useful for treating inflammation, such as arthritis and joint
damage. |
|
Turmeric Curcuma longa |
Useful treatment for arthritis,
osteoarthritis, and most other inflammatory conditions. It is stronger than hydrocortisone, without
side-effects. |
|
Aloe Vera Aloe barbadensis |
Applied topically, the thick gel that oozes
from the cut leaves is soothing and pain relieving, and it contains rich
concentrations of anthraquinones, which promote rapid healing and tissue
repair. Well known for arthritic pain
and bursitis. |
|
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria recutita and related species |
Useful in the treatment of arthritis, and
other inflammatory conditions of the nervous and digestive systems. Useful for going into a deep, restful
sleep. |
|
Common
Cherry Prunus avium |
Common
(sweet) cherry fruit containing keracyanin, has successfully maintained
normal uric acid levels in gouty patients. |
|
Hawthorne Crataegus laevigata |
Hawthorn helps to stabilize collagen and
support the health and repair of ligaments, tendons and muscles. |
|
Mullein Verbascum thapsus |
Can be added to the bath for relieving
rheumatic pain. The small yellow
flowers that creep up the stalk, slowly opening to the sun, are effective
anodynes (they relieve pain) with antiseptic and infection-fighting
properties. |
|
Nettle Urtica dioica, U. urens |
Used as a remedy for gout, rheumatism,
anemia, exhaustion, menstrual difficulties, skin problems and hay fever, to
mention a few. Nettle is rich in a
full spectrum of vitamins and minerals, especially iron and calcium, nettle
is an excellent tonic herb and is useful for “growing pains” in young
children, when their bones and joints ache, as well as for older folks with
“creaky” joints. |
|
Oats Avena sativa, A. fatua |
Most herbalists prefer the milky green tops
for medicinal purposes, but the oat-straw contains silica as well as other
minerals needed for strong bones, hair, teeth and nails. Valuable for multiple sclerosis, in which
the mycelium sheath surrounding the nerve endings has been damaged, oats reduce
fatigue, strengthen the muscles and improve nerve function. |
Source: Gladstar ’12, Brown ’04; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Since the time of
the ancient Greeks, seeds and corms of Colchicum
autumnale (Autumn crocus, meadow saffron) an autumn flowering crocus native
to Europe, have been used as a specific treatment for gout. Primary gout is an inherited disease
associated with high blood levels of uric acid (an end product of purine
metabolism). Hyper-uremia may be due
either to an abnormal production of uric acid or to a hereditary defect in the
renal transport of uric acid, resulting in an increase in the uric acid
pool. The primary presciption for gout
is a protein free diet. Proteins, are
complex chains of amino acids, supplied in our diet chiefly by animal proteins
–meat, milk, cheese and eggs – and to a lesser degree by plants such as legumes
and nuts. Protein requirements vary,
with children, pregnant and lactating women, and men undergoing strenuous
exercise requiring larger amounts. Beyond
infancy a child requires about 10% of his caloric intake in protein. Protein deficiency, especially during the
first year of life, has been associated with decreased brain development and
lowered IQ. It is worth noting that Prunus avium fruit (common or sweet
cherry) containing keracyanin, has successfully maintained normal uric acid
levels in gouty patients. Aralia racemosa (spikenard) was used by
Cherokees and Appalachian whites as a rot tea for backache, as well as for
rheumatoid arthritis. Chimaphila umbellate (spotted
wintergreen) was used by Catawbas as a medicine for backache. Gentiana
catesbaei (blue gentian) was used by Catawbas with the roots steeped in hot
water and applied as a liquid to aching backs.
Hamamelis virginiana (witch
hazel) was used by many American Indians prepared as a liniment or decoction of
boiled leaves and stems of witch hazel for external use against inflammations
and aching backs. Phytolacca Americana (poke) was used by the Indians of Virginia as
a drink of tea of boiled fruit to cure rheumatism. Sanguinaria
Canadensis (bloodroot) a root infusion tea was a favorite remedy for
rheumatism among the Rappahannocks and the Indians of the Mississippi River
region. Eupatorium perfoliatum (boneset) used against intermittent fevers,
arthritis, gout, and epilepsy by early American physicians and Indians
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 199, 219, 200, 201, 159).
XIV. Cancer Treatment
Cancer is the
rapid and uncontrolled formation of abnormal cells in the body. Since the abnormal cells are no longer
controlled by the genetic plan governing the orderly division of normal cells,
they divide frequently in a disorderly fashion, often with varying chromosome
numbers. The cancerous cells mass
together to form a growth or proliferate individually throughout the body. Cancerous cells may interfere with the
function of the organ or tissue in which they are found. They sometimes invade neighboring tissues
also, and in metastasis they enter the bloodstream, to be carried to more
distant parts of the body where other similar growths (metastases) are
formed. Malignant cells also spread
throughout the body through lymphatic vessels, which drain lymph from organs
and tissues. Carcinoma is a type of
cancer beginning in the cells covering the skin or tissues forming the mucous
membranes (the linings of the stomach and intestines). Squamous carcinoma arising from the thickened
epithelium of the skin or the lining of the esophagus. Sarcoma is a type of cancer arising in the connective tissues of the
body, including the muscles, fibrous tissues, cartilage, bone and lymphatic and
fatty tissues. Sarcomas are often very
malignant, increasing rapidly in size, invading neighboring tissues and the
blood stream, and often liberally supplied with blood vessels. Melanoma is
found in the skin, especially on the lower limbs, head and neck. The malignant melanoma is one of the worst
forms of cancer, for it often spreads rapidly through the blood stream and
lymphatic vessels to form metastases in many parts of the body. The tumor is frequently a mole that is black
because it contains the pigment melanin. Teratomas arise from embryonic cells
that may be present in the ovary, testicle and (less frequently) other
areas. Tumors from them may represent
any type of immature tissue having the neoplastic power of prgressive
independent growth. Leukemia consists of neoplastic changes in blood-forming
tissues (e.g. bone marrow, spleen, thymus) usually accompanied by a flooding
into the blood and tissues of an excess of white blood cells, many of them
immature and abnormal (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 105, 107).
As early as 2500
BC the Hindus eradicated cancerous lesions of the skin by cautery. Recent advances in the field of radiology
allow earlier detection of cancer, and there are now improved techniques and
treatments involving the use of X-ray, radioactive cobalt, linear acceleration,
and radioactive elements. The basic
assumption in cancer treatment is that all cancer cells must be killed or
removed to achieve cure, and render the patient’s life expectancy the same as a
normal life expectancy. It is
comparatively easy to kill 99% of the malignant cells, but resistant ones are
nearly always present, and from these recurrences result. Antineoplastic drugs work on the basis of the
unique abnormal metabolism of malignant cells.
Alkylating agents (cytotoxic compunds, mustine hydrochloride (Nitrogen
Mustard) are abel to kill malignant cells during all phases of their cycle by
combining chemically with nucleic acids.
Mechlorethamine (Mustargen) given intravenously is somewhat effective
against Hodgkin’s disease and may produce more than 2 months remission. Other commercially avaible alkylating agents
include Thitepa, chlorambucil. Cyclosphosphamide, Triethylenemelamine,
melphalan, and busulfan, used against Hodgkin’s disease and other lymphomas,
lymphocytic leukemia and certain solid cancers.
Antimetabolites available commercially include Methotrexate,
mercaptopurine, Thioguanine, Fluorouracil, and cytarabine. These agents usually kill cells at the time
of DNA synthesis either by depriving the cell of vital substrates necessary for
DNA synthesis or by being incorporated into DNA as radulent precursors
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 127). Radiation
therapy uses high-energy radiation to shrink tumors and kill cancer cells.
X-rays, gamma rays, and charged particles are types of radiation used for
cancer treatment. The radiation may be delivered by a machine outside the body
(external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material
placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, also called
brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses radioactive substances, such as
radioactive iodine, that travel in the blood to kill cancer cells. About half
of all cancer patients receive some type of radiation therapy sometime during
the course of their treatment. The cure rate can be 80 percent or higher.
Radiation therapy kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA. Cancer cells whose DNA is damaged beyond
repair stop dividing or die. When the damaged cells die, they are broken down
and eliminated by the body’s natural processes HA-3-6-11: 20, 21
Cancer in the
ancestral species of man is more than a million years old, and traces have been
found in an anthropoid unearthed in Java in 1891. Bone cancer is identifiable in some mummies
discovered in the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, and the famous Evers papyrus (1500
BC) describes symptoms of cancer and primitive forms of treatment. The Hindu epic Ramayana teaches that arsenic pastes were administered as long ago
as 500 BC to treat cancerous growths.
Hippocrates, in about 400 C, described many forms of the disease and
also employed crude caustic pastes as well as cautery for therapy. No fewer than 3000 plant species have been
used by the laiety to treat cancer. For
example, Russian healers placed their patients on massive diets of grapes and
nothing else. Up to 15 pounds were eaten
per day. If this routine was followed
for at least 6 weeks near cures were claimed in many cases, particularly for
stomach or intestinal cancer. The American Cancer Society has found this diet
of no objective benefit for the treatment of human cancers, in fact high levels
of tannins in certain grapes suggests a carcinogenic potential. A treatment having even weaker foundation,
but important psychological implications, was used in the court of the Roman emperor
Theodosius (fouth century AD) vervain (Verbena
officinalis) root was cut in half, with one part hung around the patient’s
neck and the other hung to dry over a smouldering fire. As the vervain dried, the tumor supposedly
shriveled. If the patient at any tie
appeared ungrateful for the cure, however, the physician would threaten to
throw the root into water, assuring the patient that as the root absorbed
moisture, the tumor would return. The
Ebers papyrus, mentions the external application of garlic (Allium sativum) for indurations. Hippocrates prescribed eating garlic as
treatment for uterine tumors, and the Bower manuscript, dating from about AD
450 in India, recommended garlic as a cure for abdominal tumors. From the National Cancer Institute central
files, Hartwell reported that cancer incidence in France is supposedly lowest
where garlic consumption is greatest, that garlic eaters in Bulgaria do not
have cancer, and that a physician in Victoria, British Columbia, related that
he has successfully treated malignancies by prescribing garlic eating. In 1957 Weisberger and Pensky reported that
extracts of garlic bulbs contain a powerful bactericidal agent, allylthiosulfinic
alllyl ester or allicin, which is formed by the interaction of a garlic enzyme
alliinase and the substrate S-ethyl L-cysteine sulfoxide. When either the enzyme or the substrate was
inoculated into mice infected with a sarcoma, all animals died within 16 days,
but when the enzyme was allowed to react with the substrate, following by
administration to the tumor bearing animals, no tumor growth occurred and the
animals remained alive during a 6 month period.
No further research ahs been conducted on the chemotherapeutic value of
garlic (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 122, 123).
The carcinogenic
potential of tobacco was first reported by Sir John Hill, a physician and
botanist who in Tobacco and Cancer: the First Clinical Report, 1761 associated the
excessive use of snuff from Nicotiana
tabacum with the appearance of fatal malignant polyps of the nose. Later, in 1775, Percival Pott linked scrotal
skin cancer or “soot warts” to a combination of work done by English chimney
sweeps and their infrequent bathing habits.
Skin cancers were later associated with the medicinal application f
coals tar and creosote preparations.
Alkylating agents, also used in the treatment of cancer in their final
form, are nearly always carcinogenic in laboratory animals. There are a number
carcinogenic (oncogenic) natural products.
Rue contaminated with Claviceps
purpurea (ergot). Hepatotoxic and
hepatomalignant substances were first linked to Penicillium islandicum, P.
ruburm, Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, Agaricus bisporus, Crude
cycad meal, containing cycasin, results in hepatic, renal and occasionallyl,
intestinal neoplasms. If the animal’s
bacterial flora is able to convert the metabolites of cyasin, the rate of tumor
development will reach almost 100%.
Species that contain seeds with carcinogenic agents are Cycas circinalis (cycasin, from Guam and
tropical Africa), C. revolute
(cycasin and neocycasin, from Java) and the widely cultivated Encephalartos barkeri (macrozamin, from
Africa), and Macrozamia spiralis
(macroszamin, from Australia). Tannin,
found in high quantities in mahogany and redwood, and to a lesser extent in
some teas, have been associated with neoplasms, but they are rendered insoluble
by milk, for the casein of milk fixes the tannin and prevents its action on the
mucous membrane of the mouth. Chewing
quids, in southern Asia betel, which
includes the seed of Areca catechu,
leaf of the pepper, lime and various additions of tobacco and spices; in Iran
and in the south central soviet Republic it is nass, which consists of tobacco, wood ash, lime, water and oil of
cottonseed or sesame; and in Andean South America it is coca, which is the leaf
of Erythroxylum coca (the course and
main ingredient of cocaine) and lime.
Lime additives appear to release the alkaloids, thus hastening the
physiological effects by damaging the oral mucous membrane. Lime may also facilitate carcinogenesis in
other ways. Chewing tobacco in the United States is associated with both oral
carcinoma and leukoplakia. The tumor
appears at the site where the quid is held.
Thirteen carcinogenic hydrocarbons residing in the “tar” fractions have
been isolated from tobacco or smoke condensate.
The presence of nitrosamines in smoke and of free radicals in cigarette
tars may be very important, for removing a concentrate of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons from smoke condensate resulted in about 50% reduction in
tumorogenic activity of mouse skin. The formation of liver tumors in rats fed
red pepper (Capsicum frutescens) as
10% chili in their diet occurs at a higher incidence than in the control group
(Elvin-Lewis ’77: 120, 122, 116, 117, 118, 121).
60 to 70 percent of all cancers can be prevented by staying physically
active, not smoking and most important, by choosing predominantly plant-based
diets rich in a variety of vegetables, fruits, legumes and minimally processed
starchy staple foods. Vegetarian diets
decrease the risk of cancer. The vast
majority of all cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and other forms of degenerative
illness can be prevented simply by adopting a plant-based diet. Vegetarians eat more fruits and vegetables
than meat-eaters. This is one of the
reasons vegetarians live longer, and cancer rates for vegetarians are 25 to 50
percent less than those of the general populace, even after controlling for
smoking, body mass index and socioeconomic status. There are many environmental
factors that can contribute to cancer.
The list includes exposure to radiation, pesticides, and exnoestrogens
(synthetic chemicals which mimic or block estrogen in the human body) and many
others. Much of the damage is caused by
“persistent organic pollutants” (POPs) a group of highly toxic, long-lived,
bio-accumulative chemicals. Many of
these chemicals cause irreversible damage in people and animals at levels the
experts called inconsequential a decade ago.
People receive about 90 percent of their total intake of these compounds
from foods of animal origin. Dioxin is
an extraordinarily carcinogenic and perilous threat to health and the
environment. Yet the EPA says that up to
95 percent of human dioxin exposure comes from red meat, fish, and dairy
products. Dioxin may be responsible for
12 percent of human cancers in industrialized societies. Overall, the incidence of cancer is
decreasing in women in the United States.
Between 1947 and 1971 the rate has dropped from 294 per 100,000 to 256,
although breast cancer remains a constant threat. For men the peril is rising. During the same period the cancer rate in males
increased from 280 per 100,000 to 304, and the death rate rose by nearly 40%. Lung cancer was the biggest factor in this
increase, accounting for about 63,000 male deaths in 1975. Since 1990 the rate
has gone down. Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality
worldwide. In the US 150,000 lives are
lost every year. Smoking is the primary
risk factor, second hand smoke is a risk factor (Robbins ’01: 39, 42, 44).
Lung cancer risk declines by 40 percent among people who consume a lot
of apples, bananas and grapes. British
vegetarian men had 27 percent the chance of getting lung cancer to the general
population and women 37 percent. German
vegetarian men has only 8 percent the chance of contracting lung cancer. A low-fat plant based diet would lower the
heart attack rate about 85 percent, and cancer rate 60 percent. The death rate from breast cancer per 100,000
is 22.4 in the US, 6.3 in Japan and 4.6 in China. The primary reason for the difference is that
people in the Orient eat more fruits and vegetables, less animal products,
weigh less, drink less alcohol and get more exercise than people in the
US> Breast cancer rates for women in
Italy who eat a lot of animal products is three times greater than women in
Italy who don’t. Breast cancer rates for
women who eat meat in Uruguay are 4.2 times greater. Women who are 45 pounds overweight have
double the cancer risk. Prostate cancer
is the most common cancer among American men.
The risk of prostate cancer for men who consume high amounts of dairy
products is 70 percent increased while those who consume soy milk was 70
percent reduced. Risk increases 45
percent for men with low blood levels of beta-carotene found naturally in
carrots, sweet potatoes and yams.
Tomatoes also brought about a 45 percent reduction in risk. Colon cancer
takes 55,000 lives in the US each year.
Rates of colorectal cancer in various countries are strongly correlated
with per capita consumption of red meat and animal fat, and inversely
associated with fiber consumption. Risk
of colon cancer for women who eat red meat daily was 250 percent greater than
those who eat it less than once a month.
Once a week consumption caused a 38 percent increase in risk over those
who abstained Those who eat poultry once
a week was 55 percent greater. Poultry
four times a week is 200-300 percent greater risk. People who eat beans peas, or lentils at
least twice a week were 50 percent lower risk.
Diets rich in B-vitamin folic acid, found in dark green leafy
vegetables, beans and peas, were 75 percent lower. The ratio of colon cancer for white South
Africans compared to black South Africans was 17 to 1, presumably by the
absence of animal products in their diet.
Only 2 percent of Americans are however aware that eating less meat
reduces colon cancer risk (Robbins ’01:46, 47, 48, 50). No protein, no tumor growth factor.
Leukemia
(reticulosarcomas)and lymphoma (lymphosarcomas) have a relationship to
Epstein-Barr virus infection, which causes infectious mononucleosis, Hodgkin’s
disease, nasopharyngeal carcinomas and leukemias. In the United States the peak of acute
lymphocytic leukemia occurs among children between 3 and 4 years of age, then
the rate falls until the age of 35, when the incidence of predominantly chronic
lymphocytic leukemia appears to rise. In
addition retrovirus (oncornavirus, leukovirus) particles similar to those found
in animal leukemias have been discovered.
Radiation induces both chronic myeloid leukemia and acute leukemia, that
has also been associated with exposure to such chemicals as benzene and
chloramphenicol. For primary prophylaxis of aspergillosis in immunocompromised
individuals at high risk of invasive disease (i.e., neutropenic patients with
acute myelogenous leukemia [AML] or myelodysplastic syndrome [MDS],
hematopoietic stem cell transplant [HSCT] recipients with graft-versus-host
disease [GVHD]). IDSA considers posaconazole the drug of choice; alternatives
are itraconazole or micafungin.
Posacanazole (Noxafil) is available as a suspension for oral
administration. NOXAFIL (posaconazole oral suspension) Oral Suspension is a
white, cherry-flavored immediate-release suspension containing 40 mg of
posaconazole per mL and the following inactive ingredients: polysorbate 80,
simethicone, sodium benzoate, sodium citrate dihydrate, citric acid
monohydrate, glycerin, xanthan gum, liquid glucose, titanium dioxide,
artificial cherry flavor, and purified water. NOXAFIL (posaconazole oral
suspension) Oral Suspension is prescribed at 200 mg (5 mL) three times a day
until no longer immune-compromised or suffering from neutropenia, for the
prophylaxis of invasive Aspergillus and Candida infections in patients, 13
years of age and older, who are at high risk of developing these infections due
to being severely immunocompromised, such as hematopoietic stem cell transplant
(HSCT) recipients with graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) or those with
hematologic malignancies with prolonged neutropenia from chemotherapy. NOXAFIL
(posaconazole oral suspension) is indicated for the treatment of oropharyngeal
candidiasis, for which the loading dose of 100 mg (2.5 mL) is taken twice on
the first day, then 100 mg (2.5 mL) once a day for 13 days, and also
fororopharyngeal candidiasis refractory to itraconazole and/or fluconazole 400
mg (10 mL) twice a day until treated.
Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is also a likely cause of breast, lung
and brain cancer. Antifungal medicines NOXAFIL (posaconazole oral suspension
and Sporonox (itracanazole) are a must for cancerphobics (HA-10-4-12:
5, 6).
Carcinomas of the
colon and rectum are fairly common and may begin as polypoid, sessile, or
ulcerative neoplasms. Signoid and rectal
cancer occur most frequently (55-75%) in males, and those found in the colon
(20%) occur slightly more commonly in females.
Early spread to the lymphatics is often seen with the ulcerative
forms. If metastatic dissemination is
late, however, surgical cure is possible.
Increased incidence of colon cancer among American, Canadian and British
populations may be due to habitual prolonged stool retention, which would
result in exposure of the colon to carcinogens produced by the interaction of
fecal bacteria and certain food constituents. Uterine and cervical cancer is
95% squamous cell carcinomas, the remainder are adenocarcinomas. Numerous epidemiologic studies suggest that
this cancer may be regarded as a venereal disease caused by a biologic agent
(probably herpesvirus II) rather than a chemical substance. Not only is its incidence higher among more
promiscuous patients, but it is also frequently seen among those whose consorts
have penile carcinoma. Adenocarcinomas
of the prostate occur with increasing frequency after the fourth decade but
these cancers may be asymptomatic or associated wth senile atrophy of the gland
at any age. Epidemiologic surveys link
genetics, industrial exposure to cadmium, and air pollution to the etiology of
prostate cancer, although viral infections have not been eliminated. Adult
kidney cancers of various degrees of malignancy are almost entirely parenchymal
adenocarcinomas and squamous cancers of the renal pelvis. They are commonly found among cigarette
smokers and those exposed to industrial and environmental pollution. There are no painful symptoms until
hematogenous spread results in metastatic tumors of the lungs or liver. Incidence is related to exposure to tobacco,
and coffee, bilharziasis, and carcinogenic chemicals, such as 2-napthylamine
and other aromatic amines (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 114, 112, 113, 114).
Herbal
Remedies for Cancer
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Vitamin
E |
Antioxidant,
regulation of oxidation reactions, supports cell membrane stabilization.
Found in polyunsaturated plant oils (soybean, corn and canola oils), wheat
germ, sunflower seeds, tofu, avocado and sweet potatoes. |
|
Mineral |
Indication |
|
Selenium |
Antioxidant.
Works with vitamin E to protect body from oxidation. Found in grains. |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Asian Ginseng Panax ginseng |
Increases nitric oxide in immune cells,
blood vessels and erectile tissues. Increases Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH) and cortisol Increase protein synthesis. Antistress,
antifatigue, muscle strength and recovery time, reaction time and alertness,
intellectual performance, immune function and cancer prevention, sexual
function, most beneficial for people over 40.
Ineracts with MAOI (monoamine oxidase inhibitor, anticoagulants,
steroids. Contraindicated for high
blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, bipolar disorder (manic depression)
– may cause mania, discontinue 7 days prior to surgery, do not use for more
than 3 months, may have long-term hormonal effects, do not use during
preganancy or when breastfeeding, do not use with steroids, not for children
under age 12. |
|
Garlic Allium sativum |
Garlic is not only tasty, it is the herb of
choice for treating colds, flus, sore throats and poor or sluggish
digestion. It stimulates the
production of white blood cells, boosting immune function and is a potent
internal and external antiseptic, antibacterial, and antimicrobial agent
effective for treating many types of infection, including several forms of
antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
It helps to maintain healthy blood cholesterol and helps prevent blood
platelet aggregation, making it the herb of choice for many circulatory
issues and lowers blood sugar levels in Type 2 diabetes. Garlic can irritate and burn sensitive
skin, cause heartburn, stomach distress, provoke anger and should be avoided
by nursing mothers as it can cause colick. |
|
Turmeric Curcuma longa |
Curcumin is a powerful agent against several
types of cancers of the esophagus, breast, colon, prostate and skin and
inhibits the growth of lymphoma cells.
|
|
Burdock Arctium lappa |
The root
is part of a very well-known Native American anticancer formula called
Essiac. |
|
Red Clover Trifolium pretense |
Though the FDA states “there is not
sufficient reason to suspect it of any medicinal value” studies conducted by
the National Cancer Institute suggest that red clover should be considered,
as a preventative agent and perhaps incorporated in a health-promoting tea
for people at risk for cancer. Red
clover has blood thinning properties and should not be used by those who are
taking heart medication or who have any type of blood-thinning problem. Discontinue red clover for 2 weeks before
and after surgery. |
|
Roseroot, golden root Rhodiola rosea |
Increase cellular energy production, protein
synthesis, serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine. Support DNA repair, antioxidant,
anticarcinogenic, anticancer. Improves
oxygen utilization. |
|
Rhododendrum caucasium |
Antioxidant, blocks carcinogen absorption
and 20% of fat absorption through intestines.
Increases energy in heart muscles and uric acid excretion. Relaxes blood vessels, lowers blood pressure.
Physical performance, high blood pressure prevention, cancer prevention,
weight loss, antigout. No contradindications known. Pregnancy, breastfeeding unkown. |
|
Siberian Ginseng, eleuthero Eleutherococcus senticosus |
Increase ACTH and cortisol, Norepinephrine,
Serotonin and Protein Synthesis.
Antistress, strength and endurance, intellectual productivity, immune
cell response, resilience during cancer treatment Interacts with anticoagulants by interfering
with some tests of digoxin levels.
Contraindicated for high blood pressure, heart disease – use with
caution, bipolar disorder (manic depression) – can cause mania, schizophrenia
– can cause agitation, women with hormone-sensitive cancers or conditions,
pregnancy breastfeeding unknown, not for children under age 12, lack of
safety evidence beyond 6 weeks |
Source:
Gladstar ’12, Brown ’04; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Red sap from
bloodroot (Sanguinaria Canadensis)
has been used for the treatment of cancerous disease by the North American
Indians living along the shores of Lake Superior. In 1857 a British surgeon
concocted a therapy based on a paste of bloodroot extract, zinc chloride, flour
and water. The past was smeared on a
cloth or cotton and placed on the tumor dailu (if healthy tissue covered the
tumor, it was eroded with nitric acid.
When the tumor became encrusted, incisions were made about one-half inch
apart and the paste was inserted into the cuts daily. Generally within 2 to 4 weeks the disease was
destroyed, with the mass falling out in 10 to 14 additional days, leaving a
flat healthy sore that usually healed rapidly.
All cases illustrated remissions, if not cures. 8 of 10 surgical patients returned within 2
years for further treatment, only 3 of 10 returned after using his
therapy. North American May apple (Podophyllum peltatum) rhizome or
underground stem was used by the Penobscot Indians of Maine to treat
cancer. Podophyllum resins was used by
physicians in Mississippi and Missouri as early as 1897 and by urologists in
Louisiana for the treatment of venereal warts (condyloma acuminate). Recent
clinical reports signify that podophyllin has become the drug of choice in the
treatment of human condyloma accuminata.
Others report a destructive effect of podophyllin on different cancer
cells in animals and in man, but is highly toxic. Seeds of the common apricot (Prunus armenicaca or Armeniaca vulgaris) native to China,
were used there against tumors as early as AD 502. Laetrile therapy is based on the theory that
once inside the body, the extract from apricot pit breaks down into several
components including cyanide. Cyanide is
released only when it comes into contact with an enzyme common to tumor cells,
β-glucoronidase, at which time cyanide chokes off the tumor cells, leaving
the healthy cells surrounding the growth untouched. 10 cases of inoperable cancer, with
metastases, regressed, as well as dramatic relief from pain (Elvin-Lewis ’77:
123, 124, 125). Apricot pits are as
tasty as almonds.
XV. Immune, Lymphatic and Endocrine Systems Medicine
The immune system operates on one fundamental truth: there is “self”
and there is “non-self”. Ideally, immune
system cells go after only non-self molecules such as bacteria, viruses, fungi,
parasites and even tumors, and leave self cells, such as nerve, muscle and
brain cells, alone. The immune system
knows which are “good” cells and which are “bad” cells because the surface of
every sell in your body sports special proteins called human leukocyte antigens,
HLAs. The cells doing the
detect-and-destroy work are white blood cells.
Millions of them circulate in blood and tissues, there are five main
types: Lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Lymphocytes, found mostly in the lymphatic
system, search your body for cells that don’t belong there and alert other
cells to their presence. There are two
types of lymphocytes: T lymphocytes, or T cells, secrete potent substances to
attract the immune system cells that do the actual work. They also attack and destroy diseased
cells. B lymphocytes, or B cells, are
immune cells that actually produce antibodies, specialized fighter proteins
that help your immune cells do their job.
B cells that long memories for their enemies and may remain in your body
for years, ready at any time to turn into little antibody factories whenever an
antigen they recognize appears. This is
how a vaccination works: a tiny bit of a (usually) killed virus, or antigen,
such as polio, measles, or flu, is injected into your blood-stream, provoking
your B cells to produce antibodies. The,
if you ever encounter the fully functional form of the virus, your body can
quickly marshal its defenses and produce millions of the required antibodies
without delay. If your B cells had never
met up with that particular antigen before, the antibody response would be much
slower, and the intruder could gain the upper hand. Macrophages engulf and destroy large cells,
such as bacteria or yeast, as well as the debris from natural cell formation in
a growing body. Neutrophils, are the
most common type of white blood cells in the bloodstream, they are first to
appear at the site of an injury. Their
job is to consume unwelcome cells.
Eosinophils make up 4 percent or less of active white blood cells. They attack larger cells, in part by
secreting toxins that trigger inflammation.
Basophils release granules of germ-killing toxins and histamine, a
substance that triggers inflammation when they encounter damaged tissue. Your blood contains more than 1 trillion
antibodies. Antibodies are made up of
chains of molecules that form a Y shape.
The sections that make up the tips of the Y’s arms vary greatly from one
antibody to another; this is called the variable region. It develops a unique shape based on the
antigen it was created to react to, so it can “lock” onto that antigen just
like a key fitting into a lock. There
are five classes of antibodies, each with a slightly different function and operating
method. Scientists call them immunoglobulins,
or Igs for short. Of the five, IgE is
the one we could call the “allergy antibody”.
Instead of attacking parasites as it’s supposed to do, it begins
attacking proteins and molecules it should recognize as perfectly harmless,
such as dust and peanuts and pollen, resulting in unnecessary sneezing or
diarrhea. When that happens, the IgE
binds the allergen molecule either to basophiles, or to cells called mast cells
found in the mucous linings of tissues throughout the body, such as the throat,
nose, lungs, skin or stomach lining.
This binding triggers the mast cells or basophils to release
inflammatory chemicals, such as histamine, prostaglandins, and
leukotrienes. The inflammatory process
begins, with swelling, creation of mucus, reddening, heat and vessel
constriction – an allergic reaction (Berger ’04: 23, 24, 27, 28, 30).
The Lymphatic system is a collection of organs, duct and tissues that
has the dual role of draining tissue fluid (lymph) back into the bloodstream
and of fighting infection. The lymphatic
system consist of a network of lymph nodes connected by lymphatic vessels. The node generally occur in clusters, mainsly
around the neck, armpits and groin.
Lymph is drained by a system of channels (the lymphatic vessels). The lymphatic system has no central pump
equivalent to the heart. Lymph is
circulated by the movement of the body’s muscles; a system of one-way valves in
the lymphatic vessels ensures that it moves in the right direction. Exertion also pushes fluid from body tissues
into the bloodstream. During 24 hour period, approximately 42 pints of
serumlike fluid pass from the bloodstream to the body’s tissues. This fluid bathes the cells and provides them
with oxygen and nutrients. During the
same period of time, approximately 36 pints of fluid pass back from the tissues
to the bloodstream, carrying barbon dioxide and other waste products. The reminaoing 6 pints pass from the tissues
to the lymphatic system and return eventually to the circulation from
there. Any fluid absorbed into the
lymphatic system passes across at least one lymph node before it returns to the
circulation. The fluid filters through a
mesh of tightly packed white blood cells, some of which are grouped into primary
follicles consisting of similar cells, which attack and destroy harful
organisms. Every lymph node is supplied
by its own tiny artery and vein (Clayman ’89: 656). Lymphocytes and monocytes not only circulate
in the blood and lymph but also accumulate in discret and organized masses called
the lymphoreticular system. White cells
produced by the bone marrow, thymus and spleen are present in the lymph nodes
or circulate through the lymphatic system, providing defenses against
infection. Lymph nodes are discrete
structures surrounded by a capsule composed of connective tissue and few
elastic fibrils. In the cortex are the
primary follicles, which represent the B-cell areas. The T cells occupy the parafollicular
region. The size of lymph nodes is
modified by immune response. Trivial injuries
and infections effect subtle changes in lymph node histology. More significant bacterial infections
inevitably produce enlargement of nodes and sometimes leave residual scarring. Lymph nodes in the adult are almost never
“normal” and bear the scars of previous illnesses; biopsies and histologic
evaluations are inappropriate (or untried), wherefore it is often necessary to
distinguish between past experience and that related to the present
disease. Lymph nodes undergo reactive
changes whenever challenged by microbiologic agents or their toxic products, or
by cell debris and foreign matter introduced into wounds or into the
circulation, as in drug addiction (Cotran et al ’94: 629, 630).
The endocrine system is comprised of the pituitary, hypothalamus, and
pineal glands, situated in the cavity of the skull; the thyroid and
parathyroids near the larynx at the base of the neck; the thymus which lies in
the chest above the heart; the pancreas which is located in the mid-stomach
area; a pair of adrenals placed atop the kidneys like two little hoods; and the
gonads, the sex glands. These so called ductless glands cooperate in
determining the forms of our bodies and workings of our minds. They are all closely interrelated and
supplement and depend on each other.
Every individual owes his or her development and well-being to the
normal functioning of these glands. The
minute secretions called hormones sent into the bloodstream by these glands are
responsible for the difference between a genius and an imbecile, between a
little person and a giant, between a person who is happy and one who is
cheerless. The endocrine glands control
our activity, energy, stabilization, radiance, mobility and organization of
life processes. They are also the main
glands that the reflexes will stimulate to normal performance, and that herbs
nourish with their wealth of vitamins and minerals. It is very likely that many synthetic
medicines are responsible for the malfunctioning of one or the other of these
glands, and they do have to work in perfect harmony with each other; otherwise,
all sorts of ailments will occur in the body.
The endocrine glands are very small and all together weigh only about
five ounces. Yet they control many vital
body processes. Their secret is in the
extraordinary power of the hormones they secrete. Some of the endocrine glands produce
cortisone and other needed substances, many of them probably yet unknown to
science. Researchers keep finding new
hormones and now know of over 100. The
endocrine system controls the body’s functions and rhythms, by secreting a
variety of chemicals called hormones, into your bloodstream. The hypothalamus controls hormone
production. The pituitary “Master” gland
produces hormones, and stimulates the various other glands to generate their
own hormones, which in turn are carried off to varying cells in the body. The
pineal gland is the pituitary helper.
Together these glands in the brain secrete more than 16 different
hormones. Thyroid controls emotional
stability. Parathyroid helps the thyroid
keep the body balanced. Thymus guards
against infection and gives energy.
Pancreas secretes insulin and controls blood sugar. The adrenal gland
produces adrenaline for energy, helps promote desires and courage. Each adrenal gland looks like a little
triangular hat sitting atop the kidney below it. It is made up of two parts: the middle core,
known as the medulla, and the outer layer, known as the cortex (cover). The medulla makes and stores adrenaline and
couple closely related compounds, which quickly raise blood pressure in a
crisis situation. The outer cortex of
each adrenal gland makies a hormone called aldosterone. Aldosterone is a very powerful compound that
travels by way of the blood to the kidney, where it tells the kidney to
reabsorb sodium (salt) before it goes out in the urine. Gonads are
responsible for personality and drive (Carter & Weber ’97: 13, 62, 179,
186-187).
Herbal Remedies for the Immune, Lymphatic and
Endocrine Systems
|
Vitamin |
Indication |
|
Iodine |
Component of thyroid
hormones that help regulate growth, development and metabolic rate |
|
Herb |
Indication |
|
Garlic Allium sativum |
It stimulates the production of white blood
cells, boosting immune function and is a potent internal and external
antiseptic, antibacterial, and antimicrobial agent effective for treating
many types of infection, including several forms of antibiotic-resistant
strains of bacteria. |
|
Common garden thyme Thymus vulgaris and/or lemon thyme T. citriodorus |
It is rich in anti-oxidants and has a
markedly tonic effect, supporting normal body function. It seems to have a positive effect on the
glandular system as a whole and especially the thymus gland. |
|
Turmeric Curcuma longa |
Turmeric is among the most antioxidant-rich,
anti-inflammatory and immune-enhancing herbs.
|
|
Burdock Arctium lappa |
Burdock root has a beneficial effect on the
lymphatic system, when there is lymph stagnation or congestion, indicated by
swollen lymph nodes. 3 to 4 cups of
burdock tea a day and after a day or two the swollen lymph nodes should be
gone. |
|
Calendula Calendula officinalis |
Calendula is one of the best herbs for
nourishing and cleansing the lymphatic system, alone or mixed with other
lymph cleansers such as burdock, red clover, cleavers, and chickweed. Calendula stimulates the lymphatic
drainage and moves congestion out of the body. |
|
Echinacea Echinacea angustifolia Coneflower, E. purpurea |
Top immune enhancing herb in 20th
century Western medicine which was rescued from obscurity in no small part by
European research on Echinacea. It
works, in part, by increasing macrophage and T-cell activity. It is also rich in polysaccharides, which
help protect cells against invasion by viruses and bacteria. Echinacea can be
taken at the first sign of a cold or flu to boost immune system function. Take in frequent small doses. Incredibly effective it has few if any side
effects or residual buildup in the body.
Some people have allergic reactions to Echinacea. If you get itchy eyes or ears, a runny
nose, a scratchy throat, or other sings of allergy, discontinue use. |
|
Elder Sambucus nigra |
Elder’s berries have immune-enhancing
properties and are often combined with Echinacea in immune-stimulating
remedies for colds. The berries also
have powerful antiviral properties and are helpful in treating viral
infections including flus, herpes and shingles. |
|
Licorice Glycyrrhiza
glabra |
Licorice tea and tinctures tone and
strengthen the endocrine gland system and are a specific remedy for adrenal
exhaustion (useful in menopause).
Licorice gently supports the adrenal glands ability to produce hormones
and aids in the breakdown and elimination of excess or “worn-out” hormones
via the liver and kidneys. Licorice is
often considered to be estrogen stimulating.
|
|
Mullein
Verbascum thapsus |
The leaf is also a favorite remedy for
glandular imbalances and is often combined with Echinacea root and cleavers
in tonics for glandular health.
Mullein leaf also makes an effective poultice for glandular
swelling. |
|
Red Clover Trifolium pretense |
Red clover offers a rich bounty of nutrients
that support the entire body. High in
beta-carotene, calcium, vitamin C, a whole spectrum of B vitamins, and
essential trace minerals such as magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, and
selenium. This wildflower is one of
nature’s best vitamin and mineral supplements. Red clover has a long history of use as a
blood and lymphatic cleanser. Red
clover has blood thinning properties and should not be used by those who are
taking heart medication or who have any type of blood-thinning problem. Discontinue red clover for 2 weeks before
and after surgery. |
Source: Gladstar ’12; 24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
Part C Medical History
XVI.
Ancient Medicine
Many of skeletal remains prove without doubt that Neanderthal man was
often afflicted with arthritis. During
the last centuries of the Ice Age and the first of the Old Stone Age,
Neanderthal man was replaced by a new race, the direct ancestor of homo sapiens. And, judging by his remains he too was plagued
by a multitude of bone disease such as arthritis, tumours, spinal tuberculosis,
sinusitis, congenital dislocation of the hip-joint, osteomyelitis and
deformities such as cleft spine. Rickets
probably also existed. There is evidence
dating back to those times of well-healed fractures which would seem to
indicate experiences in setting at rest or in splints. A surprisingly large number of prehistoric
skulls with bored holes have been found in New Stone Age excavations in France,
Spain, Germany, Austria, Russia and Poland, occasional examples have also come
to light in England and Peru. Probably
these early doctors tackled such an operation by boring a series of small holes
in a circle to that they eventually met and made it possible for a circular disc
of bone to be lifted out. After its
removal, this disc was often given an additional hole and worn round the neck
as an amulet. The oldest known scripts
appear on clay tablets and clay fragments which were found in Abraham’s town,
the Chaldean town of Ur in Mesopotamia, during excavations made after the First
World War. In general it seems that the
cradle of civilization lay in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, well before the
dawn of Egyptian culture, the development of the Sumerian culture began in the
fourth millennium BC. Royal tombs dating
from about 3500 BC have revealed funeral gifts of unbelievable artistic worth
and technical perfection, made by goldsmiths of considerable ability and
portraying men and animals in forms which could only have been created by
people belonging to a sophisticated culture.
We must thank the Ancient Sumerians’ passion for recording all important
events in pictures or cuneiform script on clay tablets for our knowledge of the
oldest medical activities built on tradition (Venzmer ;72: 20).
The cradle of human civilization and of the art of healing lay in the
river valleys of Mesopotamia. Medical
science created from knowledge which had been handed down. Religion, magic and medicine were closely
interwoven. Excavations prove, beyond
all doubt, that there were doctors in this river valley civilization of 2000
BC. During the second half of the
eighteenth century, countless clay tablets bearing cuneiform inscriptions were
found in the ruins of the city of Nippur (now called Nuffar). One of these tablets appeared to refer to
medical texts. The clay tablet in
question remained in the British Museum for decades, but no one succeeded in
deciphering the test. A provisional
interpretation was undertaken by the English scholar of cuneiform scripts, R.
Campbell Thompson, but it was not satisfactory.
It was not until 1953 that another expert in cuneiform script, Professor
Samuel Noah Kramer of Pennsylvania University, and his colleagues succeeded in
unraveling the secret of the mysterious clay tablet. What emerged was sensational for the history
of medicine, for it appeared that during the third millennium BC, a regular
manual of healing, evidently the oldest in the world, had been engraved on this
tablet. The most important part of this
medical text was a collection of prescriptions, together with a list of drugs
and chemical substances which, in those days thousands of years ago, were used
for medical purposes. All in all the
doctors of Ancient Mesopotamia recognized hundreds of medicinal plants of which
many are still in use today, as for example, opium poppy, mandragora, henbane,
linseed, licorice roots, myrrh, thyme, cassia, colocynth, asafetida, Indian
hemp and belladonna. These vegetable
medicines were augmented by such minerals as alum, sulphur, saltpeter and
copper (Venzmer ’77: 22).
The existence of an indigenous medical profession in Mesopotamia is
proved by the discovery of medical roll-seals containing descriptions of
healing divinities and medical instruments, which were found in the innumerable
mounds of potsherds excavated in Mesopotamia.
Such roll-seals were constantly worn by the ancient inhabitants of the
river delta on a cord wound round the wrist.
The first list of medical fees known to us is contained in the Codex of
Laws of King Hammurabi of Babylon who is said by some archaeologists to have
reigned in about 2200 BC, but according to others not until two hundred, three
hundred or even five hundred years later.
The codex, which evidently incorporated most of the Ancient Sumerian
body of ideas, then more than a thousand years old, is chiseled in a cuneiform
script approximately seven-and-a-half feet high, into a block of diorite. This block had already been excavated in Susa
(now called shush) at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It had been dragged there by Elamitic
conquerors, today it is in Paris, in the Louvre. Apart from the criminal and civil laws, the
laws regarding official duties, marriage and divorce, jurisdiction, farming
trade and shipping, it contains the oldest tariff of charges to survive,
amongst which can be found fixed fees for various services, including nine
paragraphs devoted to medical fees These
do not merely deal with the fee which the medical practitioner received for work
of one kind or another, they also lay down the penalties fo rhte doctor’s
mistakes, and expressly take into account whether the doctor had been treating
a man with a metal knife for a severe wound, and has cured the man, or has
opened a man’s tumour with a metal knife and cured a man’t eye, then he shall
receive ten shekels of silver However, if he performed the same operation on
the son of a plebian, the doctor was paid five shekels and if on a slave only
two shekels. If a doctor has treated a
man with a mental knife for a severe wound, and has caused the man to die, or
has opened a man’ tumour with a mental knife and destroyed the man’ eye, his
hands shall be cut off. The doctor was
awarded the same punishment if, as a result of an operation, the patient lost
his eyesight. If a doctor has treated
the slave of a plebieian with a mental knife for a severe and caused him to di,
he shall render slave for slave. If he
has opened his tumour with a metal knife, and destroyed his eye, he shall pay
half his price in silver.” The treatment of broken limbs or intestinal
compaints cost five shekels for a master, three shekels for a plebian and two
shekels for a slave (Venzmer ’72:
23-24).
The Ancient Mesopotamians also knew how to make a kind of soap
thousands of years before soap factories were thought of in the civilized
countries of Europe. Ashes of plants
noted for their soda content were mixed with fats and the result was an
ointment of a soapy nature. When in
about the thirteenth century BC, the Assyrian kingdom gained supremacy in the
land between the two rivers, surprisingly modern ideas and a sometimes quite
remarkable gift for observation turned up in Mesopotamian medicine. Assyrian doctors knew there was a connection
between some general illnesses and some dental disease, that the appearance of
plague was preceded by a mass-death of rats, they suspected the connection
between mosquitoes and several different kinds of fever, and even the
infrequent appearance of oriental boils, whose virus is transmitted by flies,
established the belief that the flies were identified with harmful demons. The doctors also knew the clinical aspects of
tuberculosis, pellagra, pneumonia, jaundice, inflammation of the gastric mucosa,
intestinal obstructions, strokes, abscesses of the middle ear, lithiases and
urogenital diseases. They knew, too,
that cancer of the breast was a destructive illness. Mesopotamian doctors
certainly carried out operations for cataract using bronze needles as long ago
as 2000 BC. Catheters have also been
found. Most surprising of all seems the
extensive pharmacopoeia. Enemas, suppositories and advice on diets completed
the medical panoply. In addition to a
mass of demon-worship, magic and enchantment, those ancient practitioners also
developed thoroughly rational methods of treating illness. Herodotus (born 490
BC) visited Babylon, and set down his impressions for posterity. He wrote, having no use for physicians, they
carry the sick into the marketplace, then those who have been afflicted themselves
by the same ill as the sick man’s, or seen others in like case, come near and
advise him about his disease and comfort him, telling him by what means they
have themselves recovered of it or seen others so recover. None may pass by the sick man without
speaking and asking what is his sickness. Herodotus was however prone to
exaggeration (Venzmer ’72: 29, 30).
The curtain first rises on the history of Ancient Egypt in 3400 BC
when King Menes united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt and founded
the fortified town of Memphis where they met.
Memphis was to become one of the most famous distinguished and populated
cities of the ancient world. Memphis
reached its peak as the political center of Egypt during the period of the Old
Kingdom, which dates from about 2980 to 2475 BCV Pharaoh Zoser was born in this
city of the white walls, not surprisingly he ordered that his tomb, the stepped
pyramid, should be erected not far from his birthplace. The man whom he commissioned to build it in
about 2800 BC must have been an all-round genius by our standards, he was an
architect, a versatile scholar, poet, artist, astronomer, priest, master of
ceremonies, administrator, reader to the king and doctor. His name, Imhotep, means literally “giver of
inner peace”. Imhotep is the first
doctor figure to emerge in clear outline from the shadows of history, what
history tells us about hi establishes him as one of the most model members of
his profession. He combined wisdom and
constant helpfulness with kindness of heart, the great value which the Pharaoh
and his people placed on him outlasted his lifetime and caused Zoser to have
his gifted vizier buried near his own tomb in the necropolis of Memphis. However, the people venerated him so much
that a temple was built over his grave and, year after year, the sick came on
pilgrimage to be cured. As time went on,
Imhotep came to be regarded as a god, this doctor, who had shown in his work
such a perfect combination of wisdom and humanity, became the Ancient Egyptian’s
god of healing almost two thousand five hundred years before the birth of the
great Hippocrates of Greece (Venzmer ’72: 33-34).
Arthritis was an extremely common complaint. Most surprising of all, is probably the fact
that paradentosis, tooth-root decay, which we life to blame on modern processed
food, was common throughout the pyramid era, that is to say, during the first
half of the third millennium BC. In
addition, according to American Egyptologists who have examined thousands of
skulls, caries were just as common during the early days of the Nile Valley
civilization as they are today. Arteriosclerosis is most frequentl discovered
in mummies of high officials and those of the Pharaohs themselves. Tutankhamen and Remases V both died of a
heart infection, as the English doctor, Peter Gray, was able to establish when
he examined X-rays of the mummies of these two Pharaohs. Stomach and intestinal troubles,
appendicitis, gall-stones and kidney stones were not uncommon, the worst toll,
however was exacted by the infectious diseases, especially among the poorer
sections of the community living in primitive conditions, plague and cholera,
smallpox and leprosy, typhus and amoebic dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis and
not least, that Egyptian eye disease, caused by a virus trachoma, which so
often led to blindness. Particularly
widespread, and especially prevalent among farm workers was the parasitic
disease, schistomiasis haemoatobium, which produces a tormenting type of nettle
rash, pelvic pains, haematuria, stones, anaemia and general physical
decline. The kidneys of some mummies
have been found to contain the calcified eggs of the parasite that causes this
disease (Venzmer ;72: 34-35).
Herodotus, the Greek historian, made the following report based on
personal observation of the habits and way of life of the Egyptians. “The practice of medicine is so divided among
them, that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more. All the country is full of physicians, some
of the eye, some of the teeth, some of what pertains to the belly and some of
the hidden diseases”. One of the most instructive papyrus scrolls, one of the
oldest known handbooks of Egyptian medicine is the Edwin Smith papyrus. This scroll, which was found in a grave near
Luxor in 1862, is a copy which was probably made during the middle of the
sixteenth century BC, Egyptologists assumed however that the original dates
back to the time of the pyramids, between 3000 and 2500 BC. This papyrus discusses all the measures that
were taken in the care of injuries thousands of years ago, the treatment of
wounds by sutures and plasters, the placing of broken bones into splints made
from hollowed-out ox bones, supporting straps made of bandages soaked in
quick-setting resin, the laying of flesh on wounds cauterization and many other
methods of treatment. On the other hand,
the knife, is not mentioned, therapy was conservative. Their knowledge of the skeleton was good but
that of the internal organs, despite the practice of embalming, was deficient
(Venzmer ’72: 38).
The Ebers papyrus, bought by George Ebers, in 1873 from an Arab in
Luxor and which, in the opinion of Egyptologists was written, at the latest
around 1555 BC bu tis, once again, a copy of various older texts. Surgery, the science of the internal organs
and the science of medicines, are dealt with and it is just as amazing to
observe that almost nine hundred medical prescriptions existed as it is to find
that many of the medical substances are still in everyday use. Fennel, senna
leaves, castor oil, gentian, mandragora, mandrake, henbane, hemlock, squill,
thorn-apple, poppy juice (for soothing crying children) and countless other
drugs. Among animal substances still in
the modern pharmacopocia, were Spanish fly (Cantharides) and both goat and
goose fat. Among the minerals used in
making up the many prescriptions were magnesium, lead and copper salts,
sulphur, crushed alabaster and antimony, compounds of which were considered
until quite recently to be the best remedies for worms. Here again we have
evidence of surprisingly advanced and rational methods of treatment overlapping
a confused mass of demonology, magic and invocations to produce a strange
amalgam in Ancient Egyptian medicine.
Three-and-a-half thousand years ago, the compiler of the Edwin Smith
papyrus described the relationship between the two in the following
surprisingly sensible words, Magic spells complement the effect of medicines
and medicines on the other hand, support the effect of incantations (Vezmer
’72: 39, 40).
According to the teachings of Ancient Chinese pathology, illness
develops as a result of alienation from the natural order of the universe. Legend tells of three emperors, who are said
to have lived during the first half of the third millennium BC. All three, the legend relates, were not
merely rulers but also scholars, doctors, discoverers and inventors, all three
took a high measure of interest in physiological and medical affairs. The oldest of them, Fu His, who is said to
have lived around 3000 BC is supposed to have put forward the view that every
event is the result of antagonism between two opposing moving principles. One of these, Yang, is the masculine,
illuminating, creative, firm, constructive principle, the other, called Yin, is
the feminine, soft, receptive, dark and empty one. Man’s health depends upon the existence of
harmony between both. The next emperor,
Shen Nung, so the legend says, was born around the year 2820 BC and died about
2697 BC. According to tradition, he
studied the human intestines and their functions with true passion and, in
particular, the action on the body of a variety of herbs. It is said that he had a transparent stomach
and abdominal wall and so could observe everything that happened inside his
abdomen, so he was able to make numerous experiments with poisons and their
antidotes until he was gathered to his ancestors at the age of one hundred and
twenty-three. Huang Ti was the third
legendary emperor. He only managed to
live to the age of a hundred and is said to have reigned over the Middle
Kingdom from 2697 to 2597 BC. Among
other discoveries, he is credited with the invention of the Ancient Chinese
system of pathology according to which illness is the result of alienation from
the natural order of the universe. He
studies the influence of the weather on the human body and is thought to have
been the author of the famous book, The
Theory of the Body’s Interior, known as Nei-ching. This work which was later furnished with
detailed examples and commentaries, dealt with all the branches of
medicine. All discussion of Ancient
Chinese pathology, however, culminates in the view that it is the doctor’s chief
task to restore his patient’s natural balance which has been disturbed.
The Ancient Chinese recorded their texts on bones and sometimes on
strips of bamboo. Illnesses of the head,
the sensory organs, the limbs, the intestines, the kidneys and bladder were
described. Infectious disease and
epidemics also took up a lot of room on the oracle bones. Magic and demonology
also held sway. The most famous of all
Ancient Chinese doctors, Pien Ch’io by name, lived during the time of the Chou
dynasty, between 500 and 600 BC.
Tradition has it that he practiced his art while wandering about the
country. He was particularly experienced
in the treatment of women’s and children’s diseases. Pien Ch’io is regarded as the author of the
famous medical work Nan-ching. It was
he, too, who founded the extremely complicated old Chinese system of
sphygmology, according to which a doctor was supposed to be able to diagnose
and illness solely by the condition of the pulse. The classification of people who, in Pien
Ch’io’s view, cannot be treated, seems extremely shrewd and sensible. This includes, among other, those
vainglorious and arrogant people with whom no conversation is possible, those
who value their money more than they do their bodies, those who are addicted to
overeating and dissipation, and finally, those patients who believe more in
magicians and enchanters than they do in doctors. Every general practitioner will instantly
recognize that these classifications are still completely valid today –
two-and-a-half thousand years later. A
surprisingly extensive number of drugs were used in Ancient Chinese medicine
according to a pharmacopoeia whose sources date from the second millennium
BC. The sea-grap (Ephedra) whose
alkaloid, Ephedrine, is still in favour today as a treatment for asthmas and
allergies, was already in use during the third millennium BC against lung
diseases, coughs, repsiratoyr disorders and inflammation of the eyes. Of the numerous other vegetable remedies, the
most important are euphorbinum, aconite, clamus, chestnut, aloe, angelica,
wormwood, ginsing, vetch, bamboo, senna, clematis, spurge-laurel, fennel,
gentian, nutmeg, lotus, knot-grass, pomegranate, black alder, rhubarb, castor
oil, sage and ginger. Poppy juice was
given to soothe crying children. Fresh
blood and liver were recommended in cases of anaemia. Under the Manchu or Tsing dynasty which
lasted from 1644 to 1912, Chinese mediince made little progress for, as a
result of the autopsy prohibition the most mistaken ideas about the anatomy of
the human body prevailed. Yet even
before this, news of the great achievements in Western medicine had penetrated
to China, so that interest in Euro-American medical science grew steadily
keener. Furthermore, with the
destruction of the monarchical/patriarchal system of government on 12 February
1912, when the son of heaven abdicated his throne and the Republic of China was
established under Sun Yat-Sen, the founding of Western-style medical schools
began. Unlike the two types of
civilization mentioned in the preceding chapters, those of Mesopotamia and
Egypt, the culture of Ancient Chinan and whith it her medical science, still
flourish, the Middle Kingdom now has two systems of medicine, that founded on
truly Chinese origins and the Western one.
The present rulers intend that both systems shall remain equally
valid. In Peking there is an Institute
of Ancient Chiens and Modern medicine, whoever falls ill and is sent to
hospital can himself decide, of his own free will, whether to be treated by the
old Chinese folk methods or in accordance with Euro-American principles.
There was a highly-developed sense of hygiene in Ancient India. The Vedic and Brahmin science of
medicine. Anatomy and surgery reached a
higher level of development in Ancient Indian than in other ancient civilizations. In some accounts in the 1800s, and in Mahatma
Ghandi’s as the result of that advent of Hinduism on the peninsula, people
abandoned the Ayervedic “no open defecation laws” to develop slums at low cost. Cholera epidemics result. As long ago as 500 BC tribes of foreign
invaders from the mountainous lands to the north-west who called themselves
Aryans or nobles, moved into the lower lying fertile river valleys in a
constant stream and mingled with the resident population groups and with their
civilization. Out of this union of
conqueror and subject people attaché dto the soil, there grew a high
civilization which was most fully developed in the lands on the banks of
India’s longest river, the Indus, which flows form beyond the Himalayas in the
north-west of the sub-continent down through the Punjab into the Arabian
Sea. The Indus Valley civilization,
according to most recent discoveries, reached its peak around the year 2000
BC. The cities of that time, which were
excavated after the Second World War, bear witness to the surprisingly highly
developed system of hygiene which far surpasses any similar arrangements
brought to light in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Tiled drainage canals and drainpipes carried away waste water and
excrement, magnificent bathing establishments, whose swimming pools survived
undamaged for four thousand years, steam baths, changing and rest rooms, show
the highly civilized level which had been reached in those far-off times. About the middle of the twentieth century BC,
the Indus Valley kingdom, that thosuands of years earlier had anticipated so
many of the hygienic achievements or our own day,k began to decline. Light-skinned Indo-Germanic invaders were
responsible. They called themselves
sHindu, and penetratd into the river valleys of the Indus and Ganges. The Vedic era begins in about 1500 BC with
the intermingling of dark skinned inhabitants and light skinned invaders, and
owes its name to the Veda, the four holy Sanskrit books of the Indians, which
represent the earliest record of Indian literature to come down to us. The Veda
are of especial interest to the history of medicine because, as the oldest
Indian literary monuments, they transmit the earliest information about the
diseases of Ancient India and their medical treatment. We encounter the view that disease is a
punishment for sins committed and confession is a healing measure (Venzmer ’72:
51).
Epidemic diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, cholera, leprosy
and smallpox play an important part in the ancient texts. The Vedic books provide evidence of the
existence of a highly developed science of healing in Ancient India. The Vedicv doctors knew about many healing
herbs, they knew how to cauterize wounds and cases of snake-bite, they used an
instrument like a catheter to treat cases of urine retention and they even
constructed artificial limbs and eyes. A
further text contains descriptions of tuberculosis, rheumatism, arthritis,
epilepsy, the swelling of elephantiasis, dropsy and numerous other afflictions,
as well as the plagues of tropical infections. The Vedic era of Indian meidicne
continued until about 800 BC. It was
superseded by the Brahmin era, which was to last until the end of the first
millennium AD. This era is named after
the caste of wise men, or Brahmins who determined the whole cultural trend and,
with it, that of medical science. Rahma
represented the ever-present, godlike, true and unchanging essence of all
things, the world-soul, this all-one essence was, above all, inherent in the
priestly man, the Brahmin. The doctors
stood far below them. Below even the
caste of warriors and they were awarded none of the usual honours. Doctors were not trained in temples and
schools of priesthood but had to pass through regular years of
apprenticeship. Such a training, based
on practical experience, necessarily meant that the science of healing was
predominantly organized on a rational basis.
A student’s apprenticeship lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth
year during which time he had not only to read medical texts but also to
acquire practical experience in nursing, surgical treatment, visiting patients
and preparing medicines. Alexander the
Great’s expedition to India, between 327 and 325 BC, created additional points
of contact between India and Europe.
During the first centuries AD, medical knowledge in Ancient India
attained glittering heights and the position of doctor, which had once been so
low, now acquired great prestige. Three
doctors stand out in particular: Charana, who lived at about the beginning of
the Christian era, Susruta, who practiced about five hundred years after
Christ’s birth,and Vaghbata, who lived during the seventh century AD (Venzmer
’72: 52-53).
The great number of plants used for medicinal purposes is conspicuous
in the Ancient Indian system, where more than seven hundred different herbs
were used. In addition, there were also
numerous medicines made from animal and mineral products, quite extraordinary
healing powers were ascribed to mercury.
One of the healing plants of Ancient India Rauwolfia serpentine, has
acquired a high reputation in modern medicine.
Its askaloid, reerpin, was rediscovered as recently as 1949, as a
successful remedy for high blood pressure.
The Ancient Indians also use this plant, which, because of its
crescent-shaped fruit, was called ‘moon plant’ as a sedative in cases of
anxiety. This treatment experienced a
remarkable resurrection in 1954 when it was realized that reserpin could be
used to alleviate many psychotic conditions.
No fewer than 1,120 different diseases were known to the Ancient Indian
doctors. They were familiar with
diabetes, which they recognized by the sweet honey taste of the patient’s
urine. They pondered the causes of
epidemics, in a land of epidemics. They
suspected that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, that food contaminated by
flies could bring about intestinal diseases, and they observed,quite correctly,
that the appearance of bubonic plague was always preceded by mass death of
rats. One principle highly regards by
the doctors of Ancient India was giving as much attention to the prevention of
illness as to its cure. Accordingly,
certain diets prescribed for various illnesses, breathing exercise, general
cleanliness and brushing of teeth recommended.
However the rules of health did not just restrict themselves to the
physical plane, there was even a regular psychohygiene of rules of the health
of the soul, which rested on the modern premise that without peace of mind or
inner harmony there can be no true state of health. The moral code governing the practice of the
doctor’s profession was exemplary, “a doctor must care for the curing of his
patient with his whole heart even if his life should be in jeopardy. He may not move too near another man’s wife,
even in thought, he may not treat women unless their master or supervisor is
present. In his clothing and general
outward appearance he must be simple and modest and he must keep himself free
of bad company. Especial mention was
made of the doctor’s obligation to preserve silence about the patient’s affaris
and not to tell the patient if his death was imminent, never to boast of his
knowledge but tuse every opportunity to extend his skills and during
examinations, to preserve all the rules of decency, always to be more
solicitous for the patient’s welfare than his own gain. The establishment of hospitals took place
about a thousand years earlier in India than it did in the lands of the West. When the prophetism of Gautama Buddha, who
lived from about 560 to about 480 BC, a wave of religious fervor swept through
India, hospitals were founded as a result of his teaching as they were later,
during the Middle Ages, to be found in Europe by the Christian orders. Modern Western-oriented medical practices are
only very gradually gaining a foothold among the broader strata of people
living in the Indian sub-continent (Venzmer ’72: 54, 57).
The hygienic conditions in the capital of the Aztec, Tenochtitlan,
later to be known as Mexico City, were found to be far superior to those in
contemporary towns of the Old World.
Steam and sweating baths served for the treatment rheumatism, a great
number of medicines were stored ready for use in the pharmacies, the list of
drugs used by the Aztecs was immense, they knew no less than 1,200 medical
plants of which several, such as the sarsaparilla root and Chenopodium-wormseed
oil, have maintained their medicinal use to his day. The Ancient Aztecs used the powdered leaves
of the tobacco plant as a specific against various kinds of disease as well as
for enjoyment. There is no collection of
medicines in any other ancient civilization which contains quite so many
narcotic and intoxicating drugs as that of the Ancient Mexicans. Of these magic drugs, which were used by the
ancient inhabitants of the Aztec lands to induce states of trance, three have
become most widely known, the peyote cactus, the nanakatk fungus and the seed
from a species of bindweed called oluiliuqui.
A less dangerous endowment made by the Aztecs to the Old World was the
cocoa bean. Aztec doctors used enema
syringes made of rubber, and prepared cantharides plasters from the juice of
the rubber tree. The specialization of
doctors appears to have been as extensive as that of the Ancient
Egyptians. There were specialists for
eyes, dentists, specialists in phlebotomy, intestinal and bladder complaints,
as well as surgeons who treated wounds by sewing them up with human hair, set
broken bones, plated fractures and carried out caesarian sections. Dietary prescriptions and physical therapy
were widespread and hospitals were available for clinical treatment. The Aztecs
had penetrated from the north only about four centuries before the Spanish
invasion and barbarians themselves, had taken over the civilization they found there,
a civilization which,stretched back in part to the middle of the second
millennium BC, and whose origins are to be found among the Olmeks on the coast
of the gulf of Mexico (Venzmer ’72: 60, 61).
The Mayan chronology begins with 3113 BC by our own method of
reckoning and the long round come to an end on December 21, 2012. According to the ancient pictograms,
especially those of the Tizmin chronicle, which have now been completely
deciphered, an epidemic of yellow fever raged among the Maya people two
centuries and it was so virulent that the greater part of the population,
especially the upper stratum died of the plague. The fluctuating waves of yellow fever had
already been weakening the ancient high civilization for almost a century and
as they marched into the interior, the Spaniards could not but marvel at the
many towns full of monumental ruins which ahd already been largely reclaimed by
the jungle. Houses hvae been found which
once served as steam baths, containing hot and cold rooms, and one has every
right to assume that apeople who had
such excellent hygienic arrangements at their disposal would also possess a
high standard of medical knowledge.
However, here we can only rely on guesswork for, by order of the third
bishop of Yucatan, Diego de Landa, in the year 1562, all the historical books
of the Maya were publicly burnt, as works of the devil and as a result, the
sole, irreplaceable source material about he early period of Maya civilization
was destroyed for ever. Only a few
scanty fragments, which can scarcely be said to deal with the Maya medical
science, miraculously escaped the general conflagration and later turned up in
Spain. They are now in Dresden, Paris,
and Madrid (Venzmer ’72: 63).
The doctors of Ancient Peru also had a considerable knowledge of
drugs. Balsam of Peru or copaiba, which
is obtained form the balsam tree (myroxylon) is still in use today as is
cocaine, the alkaloid derived from the leaves of the coca bush. The medical knowledge of Ancient Peru was
unquestionably superior to that of the Aztecs in the realms of surery. Amputations were performed and artificial
limbs made ending in a hollow wooden cylinder to accommodate the stump. The Incas were also active in obstetrics,
they removed tumours surgically and carried out trepanations in large numbers
in accordance with the most diverse, far-reaching methods, at first with knives
made of obsidian and later with copper and bronze instruments. Skulls that have been found clearly show that
a considerable percentage of the trepanations healed successfully. The extent to which the Incas carried out a
system of public health welfare is really astonishing and seems modern in the
best sense of the world. Once a year, a
big festical of health took place, in the course of which a thorough cleaning
of all houses and dwellings was undertaken.
Care for old people, no longer capable of work, was highly
developed. Attempts were made to offer
them a suitable occupation and the State
was responsible for their keep. The
State also looked after the lame, crippled and deformed citizens, and the fact
that they were forbidden to marry seems a form of guided natural
selection. Their extraordinary
perspicacity is borne out by the fact that they undertook forceful measures to
prevent the misuse of medicines and also knew how to discourage drug
addiction. But in spite of all progress
in rational healing processes and outstanding hygienic conditions, the doctors
of Ancient Peru did not abandon the god and demon worship, the magic diseases
and invocation of spirits which were also so much a part of their medical
practice. The inhabitants of the Inca
kingdom, as their predecessors had done before them, kept alive the belief that
the cause of an illness could be found in the sins of the patient (Venzmer ’72:
63-64).
Old Jewish medicine laid down excellent rules for hygiene. The most unequivocal expression of the
concept that illness is a punishment form God stems from the Ancient Jewish
medical science of antiquity. In the
second book of Moses the lord says to his prophet: ‘If thou wilt diligently
hearken to the voice of the Lord thy God, and do that which is right in his
sight, and wilt give ear to his commandments, and keep all his statutes, I will
put none of these diseases upon thee, which I have brought upon the Egyptians,
for I am the Lord that healeth thee (Exodus 15:26). Particularly in Leviticus,
the third book of Moses, there is an abundance of regulations of which several
seem thoroughly practical. First, all
the unclean animals are distinguished, in detail, from the clean hones. The unclean animals included the camel, the
pig, the hare, and the rabbit, also the birds of prey and a number of other
birds such as ravens, ostriches and owls, finally, the animals which creep on
the earth such as weasels, mice, toads, hedgehogs, newts, lizards, slow-worms
and moles. Though was devoted to the
circumcision of boys on the eight day after birth. Karl-Heinrich Bauer has observed, that the
Mosaic law regarding ritual circumcision has saved millions of Jews and Moslems
from cancer of the penis or cancer of the womb, during the past four thousand
years. Extensive regulations governed
menstrual hygiene in women (Venzmer ’72: 66).
XVII. Classical Medicine
The oldest schools of philosophy and medicine was situated on the
periphery of the Magna Graecia of those days.
It was built about 700 BC in Cnidus on the far, outjutting point of
Cnidian Chersonese on the south-west coast of Asia Minor, north of Rhodes. According to tradition it seems that
diagnosis played a leading part.
Treatment was concentrated more on the area where the patient’s pain was
felt rather than on the whole of his body.
During the sixth century BC the Greeks founded a medical school at Cos,
one of the Dodecanese Islands off the south-west coast of Asia Minor. This school acquired immortal fame because of
the idealized image of the doctor who taught there, Hippocrates. Another medical school grew up in Croton on
the Gulf of Tarentum. The names of two
of the Greek doctors who taught at this school have remained with us, they are
Democedes and Alcmaeon. Democedes, who
travelled all over the then known Greek world, practised his profession during
his travels, from Alcmaeon, who was convinced that without a knowledge of the
human body an efficient medical science would be impossible, stems the first Greek textbook on
anatomy. Alcmaeon expressed the
thoroughly advanced view that illness is brought about as a result of an
imbalance between the different components of the human body. According to the teachings of Empedocles, a
native of Agrigento on the south coast of Sicily, these body components
apparently consisted of the body liquids, blood, mucous, yellow gall and black
gall, their places of origin being, it was thought, the heart, the brain, the
liver and the spleen. Democritus of
Abdera was born about 460 BC in Thrace.
From Democritus stems the theory of atoms, according to which a multitude
of tiny, indivisible particles spins about in space and so brings forth matter. Democratus did not confine himself to
philosophy, ethics, and poetry, he was also a doctor, as is evidenced by a
saying his which is so apt today, “ Men pray to their gods for health, they do
not realize that they have control over it themselves. They jeopardize it by their excesses and so
their greed makes them traitors to their health”. The great humanity of
Democritus’ philosophy is confirmed by his conviction that the best kind of
happiness was one which derived from a cheerful disposition (Venzmer ’72:
69-70).
Hippocrates was born about 460 BC, the son of the doctor
Heraclides. His mother, Phainarete, was
a descendant of the family of Aesculapius, one of the noble families of Cos,
whose ancestral line, which went back to the sixth century BC, was said to
descend from the god of healing himself.
In ancient times, Hippocrates was already thought the greatest doctor of
all times, the father of doctors, in fact the classical originator of medical
science. He received his initial
training from his father, and counted Herodicos, the Sophist gorgias, and the
philosopher Democritus of Abdera, among his later teachers. He was born in a brilliant era. Socrates was pronouncing his philosophy,
Thucydides was at work on his histories, Sophocles was thrilling audiences with
his trageides, Praxiteles was creating his unique masterpieces of sculpture and
Preicles was practicing his brilliant statesmanship. Hippocrates practiced his profession on
countless journeys through Hellas and the cures which he achieved soon caused
him to become the most famous doctor in his own country, and one who was
constantly called in when all other help had failed. He spent some time Chizikos on the Propontis,
also in Meliboia and Abdera in Thrace.
He visited the island of Thasos and according to tradition, perhaps even
travelled to southern Russia, Egypt and Kyrenia. In 429 BC he was in Athens fighting the
plague which claimed Pericles among its victims and he spent the last days of a
life rich in fulfillment and blessings in Thessalian Larissa, where he died in
377 BC. He was concerned not just to
treat a sick organ, but with the whole patient, his attention was always fixedo
nthe general condition, the toality of the sick man. The human body is a circle, of which each part
may be esteemed as both the beginning and the end, of the knowledge of their
parts, their sympathy and communication.
By the affection of one part, the whole body may become affected. The writings of Hippocrates and Galen present
a genuinely warm humanitarian attitude as the fundamental basis on which his
healing activities were built. He
maintained that the chief aim of treatment was to draw observation of nature,
the constitution and circumstances of life into the field of examination in
support of the natural healing processes. Hippocrates greatest contribution was
his belief in the ethics governing the practice of medicine, as expressed by
the Oath (Venzmer ’72: 74-75).
It is not certain whether Hippocrates himself left any written work to
posterity, of the seventy-two books which were written between 480 and 380 BC
and assembled in Alexandria under the title, Corpus Hippocraticus, during the third century BC. The book The
Sacred Disease (De Morbum Sacrum)
confirms most unequivocally the total separation of Hippocratic medicine from
any involvement with magic. It begins by
saying in a downright authoritative way, I am about to discuss the disease
called sacred. It is not, in my opinion,
any more divine or more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause,
and its supposed divine origin is due to men’s inexperience, and to their
wonder at its peculiar character. The Corpus Hippocraticus deals with
different branches of medicine. One book
entitled About Air, Water and Places
was on medical climatology. The About the Nature of Man describes the
theory of body liquids in utmost detail.
The theory was based on the existence of four cardinal fluids: blood,
mucous, yellow gall and black gall.
Moreover blood represented the warm-damp principle, mucous the
cold-damp, yellow gall the arm-dry and black gall the cold-dry principle. Other fluids were the intestinal juices,
lymph and semen.. Illness was the result
of a wrong mixture of the liquids of dykrasy; health on the other hand,
depended on the correct blending of the liquids, or eukrasy, as a result of
which the harmony of an organism wasw guaranteed. The book Prognosticon
evidently comes from Hippocrates himself. It demonstrates a very sharp talent for
observation and by means of accurately described symptoms, explains the
prognoses which palyed an important role in Hippocratic medicine. A feature common to all books, in spite of
some contradictions, is that they are al imbued with the Hippocratic spirit and
put professional ethics before all other medical vitues. This attitude is expressed most forcibly in
the Law and the Doctor (Venzmer ’72:
77-78).
It was thought that food alone would not achieve health, many other
things had to be added, gymnastics, strengthening exercises, baths, massage,
the use of light, air and water, breathing exercises, voice exercises and may
more things besides. Finally, it was
believed that every case demanded its own special diet. High standards of professional ethics can be
found in the medical sciences of much older civilizations and much higher
levels of treatment by medicines of surgery and hygiene can sometimes be found
thousands of years before Hippocrates. It is important to help, or at least not
to harm, to undertake nothing useless, but also not to overlook anything. A
short time after Hippocrates death, during the fourth century BC, a doctor
became famous who, by his research and knowledge, demonstrates that interest in
anatomy was beginning to become more and more active. Diocles was a known in Athens as a second
Hippocrates. He was a much-travelled
man. He wrote sixteen books, but, though
all the titles are known, of the texts only fragments remain. One of them deals with anatomy, medical
plants and poisons. What he wrote about
a healthy way of life has come down to us intact and deserves full attention
even today, two thousand three hundred years later: Rise before sun-up. Wash the face and
head. Tooth-care – whereby gums and
teeth should be carefully rubbed with peppermint powder. Rub oil into the whole body. Then take a little walk before starting
work. At midday visit the gymnasium and
perform physical exercise. Then have a
bath and massage. Breakfast is understandably
plain: bread, a light porridge with vegetables, cucumbers or similar
vegetables, depending on the season, everything being prepared simply. Quench the thirst with water before eating. After the meal, drink white wine mixed with
water and a little honey. After
breakfast, during the midday heat, comes the siesta, in a cool shady spot free
from draught, as in all southern countries.
Then back to work and later another visit to the gymnasium. In summer, the main meal takes place during
the evening shortly before sunset. It
consists of fruit, vegetables, bread and fish or meat. The day ends with a short walk and bed sought
early (Venzmer ’72: 79, 80).
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Macedonia stageira on the Chalcidice
in north-east Hellas. He son of the
king’s personal physician, Nicomachus, he was seven years old when Hippocrates
died. Like his father, Aristotle became
a doctor, in addition, however he was destined to become one of the most widely
respected of all learned men, at once both scientist and philosopher. After the age of eighteen, Aristotle spent
twenty years in Athens as Plato’s pupil, he founded a university there and
taught his puils that contrary to Plato’s idealistic arguments, experience
derived from obersvation is the foundation of all knowledge. Since he like delivering his lectures while
strolling though the shaded arcades (peripatoi) of the Lyceum, his was known as
the peripatetic school. Aristotle left
the then capital city of science and the arts when the Athenians declared war
on King Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great. He was forty-one years old when King Philip
called upon him to become the private tutor of the thirteen-year-old Alexander. The many extremely accurate descri9ptions of
strange animals not found in Greece would seem to show that Aristotle
accompanied his royal pupil on at least some of his campaigns. At the age of fifty-three Aristotle returned
to Athens where, with remarkable productivity and diversity he produced those
basic works which, on the one hand, led him to become known as the father of
logic and, on the other hand, as the found of science, the first biologist in
the comprehensive meaning of the word.
Aristotle, whose teachings remained valid for hundred and even thousands
of years, believed firmly that nature never creates anything without a
purpose. Alexander the Great founded the
town of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt at the north-west corner
of the Nile. Quickly the splendid town
of Alexandria became the citadel of a new science which was still based on
Aristotle’s teaching but in which the Greek and oriental character and
knowledge merged and fertilized each other (Venzmer ’72: 84-87).
Galen, Claudius Galenus was born in Pergamum in the summer of AD
129. Pergamum, home of Attalus and
capital of Mysia, was situated in Asia Minor not far from the Aegean coast
opposite the island of Lesbos. The city,
which once contained a famous library and shrine to Aesculapius. Socrates was not the only one to have his
Xanthippe, in one of his many books, Galen’s youthful memories make this
clear. His father, Nikon, the architect,
was a kind-hearted man, but his mother was very different. She was a quarrelsome, obsessively
argumentative woman, always ill-tempered, ceaselessly abusive, and so
uncontrolled that she sometimes even bit the housemaids during her outbreaks of
violent passion. Under the Roman aegis,
dissection of human bodies was strictly forbidden. Galen therefore had to obtain his practical
experience from the dissection of animals.
During his thirtieth year, Galen gave up his wandering life and with a
certificate to prove he had passed his examinations, he returned to his native
Pergamum to practice as a doctor.
Galen’s chief contribution to medicine was his zealous promotion of
anatomical and physiological knowledge.
Claudius died at the age of seventy.
He had based his work as much on commonsense as experience, and his
death brought to an end a strenuous and fruitful life. Galen was unquestionably the most important
medical experimentalist, not only of his own time, but of all medical history
before the seventeenth century. The
status of doctors and medicine during the decline of the Roman empire maintained
a comparatively high development surgery.
After the fall of Rome, medicine returns into the control of the priests
and clerical doctors, and suffers stagnation, paralysis and decay of medical
science and resurgence of monk’s belief in demons. The first hospitals are started in the
cloisters (Venzmer ’72: 94, 87, 99, 100).
Roman public health and hygiene shows signs of Etruscan
influence. The ruins of palatial
baths. Every Roman house was supplied
with fresh water by means of a system of aqueducts, that water closets have
been excavated and that, even during Rome’s earliest days, the cloaca maxima
drained the marshes around the hills and kept the city clean. Even in the days of Augustus, doctors were
exempt from paying taxes and when, during Caesar’s reign, there was a shortage
of food and all foreigners, about eighty thousand, were forced to settle in the
colonies, the doctors, the great majority of whom were foreigners, were
exempt. Vespasian and Hadrian extended
these privileges to include exemption from military service. At the beginning of the third century AD,
Septimius Severus established a certificate of medical qualification. When the philosopher emperor, Marcus
Aurelius, died of the Antonine scourge, smallpox, in spite of the efforts of his
personal physician Galen, a sad period began for imperial Rome. A life of idleness and luxury, immorality and
corruption, despotism, extremely high taxation, and a decline in agriculture
spread throughout the land. It is
self-evident that these manifestations of dissolution also affected the
doctors. Hardly anything remained on the
high ideals embodied in the oath or the professional ethics originated by
Hippocrates, the father or medicine, quack doctors and charlatans prospered,
fashionable doctors became millionaires.
Even in Galen’s day, the prospects of maintaining the standards of the
profession were poor. Young doctors were not interested in acquiring knowledge,
in practicing the art of healing or of serving their fellow men, their sole aim
was to transact business as quickly as possible, and translate their medical
skill into hard cash. It is thanks to
Galen’s angry complaints about the growing signs of decadence that we are
particularly well informed of this state of affairs. Full of bitterness, he went on to say, “the
only difference between a robber and a doctor is that the former commits his
crimes in the mountains and the latter commits them in Rome” (Venzmer ’72:
101).
It was through Constantine, who regarded the sun god as his protective
deity, that freedom of faith was proclaimed by an official edict in Milan
during the year AD 313. He was also the
instigator of the division of the Roman Empire, when, seventeen years later, he
founded a second Rome, Byzantium, on the Bosphorus. The decay of the Roman Empire was accelerated
when, with the invasion of the Goths, Huns and Vandals, the people began to
migrate. In AD 410 Rome was taken by the
barbarians, and during the last quarter of the fifth century the western half
of the Roman Empire disappeared, Byzantium, or Constantinople, was now the
capital of the empire. Scientific progress could not be expected during such
chaotic times. It is true that one or
two outstanding doctors kept alive the medical tradition, but they were merely
healers of the sick and in no way involved in medical research. Medical science
fell into the hands of the priests. The
old superstition was revived that sickness was a punishment from heaven for
sins committed, the remedies of the Church, constant prayer and the laying on
of hands, replaced medical skill. It
seems almost incredible that a person as eminent as Aurelius Augustinus, the
most prominent father of the Western Church during the fifth century, could
refer to the high rate of infant mortality in such terms as “the illnesses of
Christians are called forth by demons who chiefly torment freshly baptized,
yes, even innocent, new-born children”. In the realm of ethics, however,
progress is unmistakable. The medical
instruction that incurable diseases should not be treated, which is met in so
many ancient civilizations and even in Hippocrates teachings, was replaced by
the introduction of the Christian duty of charity even towards hopeless
cases. Another true advance was the
establishment of sick-wings in many monasteries and even proper hospitals,
although the medicine taught in monastery schools inevitably acquired a
clerical character. Herb gardens sprang
up here and there when it was realized that patients needed help other than
prayers of the laying on of hands and when clerical doctors began to lost their
mistrust of rational medicine, they took pains to combine the Christian
doctrine of faith with ancient wisdom.
Monastic and clerical medicine came to an end during the twelfth century
after the Synod Clermont. Monks were
then forbidden to pursue any healing activities because these conflicted too
much with the real purpose of monasticism – unworldly piety (Venzmer ’72: 103,
104,105, 106).
After a detour to Arabia, classical medicine returned to the
West. The Arabic doctors Al Rhazi and
Avicenna and the medical school of Salerno was the seed from which the medical
faculties of the future were spring. In
570 Mohammed was born in Mecca. When he
was sixty year old, he experienced the triumph of his teaching in Arabia,
although the spread of the new religion throughout the Mediterranean under the
first caliphs only took place after his death.
Syria, Palestine, Babylon, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, Spain and large
parts of India were brought under its sway, and one century after the prophet’s
death, the Arabian kingdom stretched from the Indus to the Pyrennees. Alexandria was still a focal point of the
sciences and especially of medicine. The
famous library there, the biggest in antiquity, with its seven hundred thousand
book rolls, had perished in the flames long ago during 48 and 47 BC, when
Caesar’s soldiers had fought the Egyptians in Alexandria. Nevertheless, there were still accounts of
the ancient sciences, in numerous books and the Arab conquerors were avid to
lay hands on them. Diplomatic missions
searched everywhere for such books, in peace treaties one of the conditions
required the handing over of such works.
So a great Moslem library grew up in Baghdad which was not inferior to
its Alexandrian predecessor. The Arabs
soon learned that the treatments and prescriptions worked out by Greek doctors
were more effective than the traditional Arabic mumbo jumbo, so they went to
work eagerly to translate those of the old books which had been preserved. Medical chemistry experienced a considerable
revival under the Arabs, the word alcohol, for example is of pure Arabic
origin. The study of pharmacology
reached such proportions that it became necessary, at the beginning of the
eighth century, to separate for the first time the profession of doctor from
that of chemist. Magnificent hospitals
were built, the most famous of them in Damascus and Cairo, which were also used
for the training of young doctors. Then
an indigenous Arabic medical literature began to evolve, largely through the
efforts of two outstanding doctors, Al Rhazi and Avicenna (Venmer ’72: 107,
108-109).
Al Rhazi, whose real name was, in fact, Abu Bekr Mohammed Ibn
Zakkariya, was born in the year 865.
Frequent visits to a hospital, caused Al Rahzi’s interest in medicine to
grow until finally he spent all his time studying medicine. Moreover he showed such a talent for it that
he soon became a well-known doctor and was appointed head of the hospital. He collected a great many pupils and was a
prolific writer said to have written more than a hundred books, some say more
than two hundred. His best-known work, a
manual on medicine which he dedicated to the king of Khorasan, also had a far
reaching effect on Western healing. His
monographs on smallpox, measles and children’s diseases also prove how
extraordinarily observant he was. His
longest work is the vast encyclopaedia, El Hawl, which collects together all
Greek, Arabic and Indian medical knowledge and experience, and which relies on
the descriptions of typical case histories.
Just over a century after Al Rhazi, another doctor became famous. He was called Avicenna. His real name, Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdullah
ibn Siba. Avicenna, too, was a Persian
and he was born in AD 980. This child
prodigy began to study medicine when he was sixteen years old, at eighteen he
was already a well-known doctor who was summoned to the court, and at
twenty-one he compiled an encyclopaedia of sciences containing a twenty-volume
commentary. Besides studying, writing,
teaching and practicing as a doctor in many far-flung localities whose names
are known to us today as the places of origin of valuable carpets, he was
appointed minister of State.
Constitutionally, however, he was unable to bear such a multifarious
burden indefinitely and he died in 1037 at the age of fifty-seven. In his five part Canon of Greek-Arabic
medical sciences, which is still regarded as the catechism of healing in the
Middle East, Avicenna succeeded in doing what Galen had tried in vain to
accomplish, to establish a complete system of medicine (Venzmer ’72: 110, 111).
XVIII. Medeival Medicine
The period known as the Middle Ages lies between two great deadly
epidemics: the Justinian plague, which raged in the sixth century during the
reign of the Eastern roman emperor Justinian, and the Black Death, which swept
away a quarter of the population of Europe during the fourteenth century. The epidemic which was named after Emperor
Justinian is the first in history which can be described with certainty as
being a plague epidemic. Even though th
Ancient Mesopotamians had already connected the appearance of plague with the
mass death of rates, most of the epidemics described as “plague” did not
involve genuine cases of plague as we nowadays define the word. For example recent research indicates that
the Attic plague, which Homer tells us raged in the Greek camp during the siege
of Troy and ended the golden age of Athens, besides killing off Pericles, was
not, in fact, plague. Neither was the so-called
Antonine plague, which the roman legionaries brought back to Italy during the
second century AD and which caused Marcus Aurelius’ death. These were not genuine epidemics of plague,
but epidemics of smallpox or typhus.
However, the Justinian plague which, during the year AD 542, killed ten
thousand people in Constantinople alone, is the first epidemic in history which
can be described with absolute certainty as being a mass epidemic of true
bubonic plague. The characteristic
plague sore (bubo) in the groin and armpit is exactly as described, and it was
known that its sloughing announced the patient’s imminent death. The brilliant Greek historian Procopius
described the cruel course of the plague extremely vividly. No cave or mountain peak so inaccessible, but
the plague everywhere exacted its victims.
No age was spared, no palace, no hut.
People collapsed in the streets as if struck by lightning. They sank paralyzed to the ground before the
altars. The streets became depopulated
and filled with the stench of the corpses which littered the ground. Civil life had ceased, the only people left
in the squares were the corpse bearers.
The plague weakened the influence of morals, those people who were not
ill, abandoned themselves to the unbridled enjoyment of worldly pleasures and
one was forced to believe that the disease had spared only the most depraved
speciments of humanity (Venzmer ’72: 123).
There are many hospitals today which still bear the name, Hospital of
the Holy Ghost. The title derives from
the medieval Order of the Holy Ghost which, during the second half of the
thirteenth century, had under its control more than a thousand subsidiary
establishments. Among its many
activities, this order became the originator of the present-day poor-houses,
hospitals and orphanages. During the
crusades, which set out to conquer the Holy Land from the end of the eleventh
century to the end of the thirteenth century, great numbers of sick, infirm and
indigent people streamed back from Palestine.
As a result towns in Europe were threatened by a flood of
epidemics. This was the time when the
great nursing orders were founded: the Order of the Knights of the Hospital of
St. John (or Hospitallers) in 1099, the Order of the Knights of the Temple (or
Templars) and the Order of Lazarus (which devoted itself especially to the care
of lepers) at the beginning of the twelfth century, and, at the end of th
twelfth century, the Order of Teutonic Knights and the Order of the Holy
Ghost. Founded by a Spanish nobleman the
Order of the Holy Ghost was sanctioned by Pope Innocent III. On the initiative
of the Order of the Holy Ghost, it became common practice for a chest with a
hinged lid to be placed outside hospital doors, in which mothers oculd
anonymously leave their babies. The
order then took over all further care of the foundling. Holy Ghost hospitals, which looked after not
just the sick but also the orphans, the poor, the cripples, the senile, the
homeless and outcast, the disabled and mutilated, were established in m,any
places. Quite apart form the Knights of
the Corss, crusaders and their following, the Hospitallers also looked after
the vast number of patients who found their way into the hospitals during
epidemics great and small. The only medical man ever to acquire papal dignity
was Petrus Hispanicus, who became Pope Peter Johannes XXI. He obtained his medical qualifications at the
University of Montpellier, the same university also produced Arnold of
Villanova, a native of Portugal, who practiced medicine during the second half
of the thirteenth century. He, like the
other doctors of his time, can count as belonging to the scholastic period of
medicine. This did not produce any
original medical ideas, but was more concerned, to present the reinstated Greek
teaching without any addition of personal experience. Nevertheless, practical medicine owes thanks
to Arnold in one important respect, he was the first to prepare tinctures of
vegetable matter based on alcohol and he also invented brandy which he called
aqua vitae or water of life. Characteristic
of the high repute which educated doctors enjoyed at that time is that
Villanova, like a number of his colleagues, was entrusted with important
diplomatic missions. But the esteem in
which he was held was not able to prevent him from coming into conflict with
the Church. This conflict was all the
more pronounced as he did not restrict himself to medical studies, but also
debated philosophical and theological matters.
The inquisition prosecuted him and he would doubtless have been burnt,
together with his writings, if he had not been the personal friend and protégé
of Pope Boniface VIII (Venzmer ’72: 120-121, 115-116).
The academy of Salermo adjacent to a Benedictine hospital liberated
medicine from the priesthood. The work
of a medical scholar at the academy of Salerno represents a unique
phenomenon. In this work, which was
written around AD 1140 professional cunning and medical ethics intermingle in a
most amusing manner. The book advises a
doctor as soon has he is called out on a case, to find out from the messenger
as much as he can about the past history and present condition of his client so
that th elater and his immediate circle will be filled with astonishment by the
physician’s knowledge. Doctors
apparently knew quite a lot about the conection between the circulation and the
emotions for he goes on to say, “Feel his pulse, but remember, while doing so,
that it may well be affected by your presence or, if your patient should be a
skinflint, by the thought of your fee”.
His advice not to be thasty with diagnosis or prognosis demonstrates
great worldly wisdom for, “the friends or family will be grateful for a verdit
upon which they have had to wait for a time”.
Equally prudent seems the recommendation that the doctor should tell the
patient that with God’s help he will cure him, while, at the same time telling
relatives that the case is a serious one.
The medical school in Salerno reintroduced a kind of medical license,
the first since Septimius Severus.
Around the middle of the twelfth century, Roger II, King of Sicily,
Calabria and Apulia, enacted a statute according to which no one was allowed to
practice medicine without a certificate of qualification. This law was also a preluse to the systematic
sanitary regulations introduced about a century later by Emperor Frederick II
of Hohenstaufen. The medical school in
Salerno was elevated to the rank of a public college in 1220 and flourished
until well into the thirteenth century.
It enjoyed such a reputation that a doctor who could say he had received
his professional training there was universally trusted. When, later, other bigger establishments came
into being, Salerno gradually diminished in importance. This does not, however, alter the fact that
the college of Salerno was the seed from which the medical faculties in the
great universities of later times were to spring (V enzmer ’72: 112, 113).
Only a short time after Arnold of Villanova, a doctor who had studied
medicine and philosophy in Padua and who was probably acquainted with Dante
caused a stir. His name was Pietro
d’Abano. As a result of the constant
translation, retranslation and copying of the old texts, a number of
obscurities, inconsistencies and often even contradictions had come into
being. The scholarly doctors regarded it
as their task to rearrange the surviving ancient texts into logical order
according to the dialectical ways demonstrated by Aristotle and the Arabs and
to fit them all into a system. In doing so, Pietro evidently, developed
original ideas and this at the time when independent thought was just as
forbidden as the declaration of personal opinions was mortally dangerous. As a result he, too, ended up in the hands of
the Inquisition, accused of magic and necromancy. He was only acquitted after protracted and
hair-splitting legal proceedings. No
real progress, especially in anatomical studies was achieved. Even occasional post-mortems, undertaken to
solve crimes, for example, had as little impact on this state of affairs as the
decree of Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, which permit the dissection of
a human every five years! The branch of
medicine which was in the worst plight during the Middle Ages was surgery. The Synod of Tours, which sat in AD 1163, had
announced dogmatically: “Ecclesia
abhorret a sanguine” (The Church abhors any form of bloodshed). Thus surgery slopped out of the hands of the
doctors and became the craft of all kinds of shadowy practitioners sucha s the
castrator, the travelling quak, the hangman and the barber. One exception, was Guy de Chauliac, a French
farm boy who studied medicine and theology in Montpellier. He rose to become the domestic chaplain and
personal physician to several of the popes.
In worthy contrast to the lowly position occupied by surgery at that
time, Guy de Chauliac was an excellent surgeon who effected a decisive
improvement in operations for stones and for cataracts. He also compiled a work Chirurgia Magna, which described a large number of innovations,
many of which are still in use today (Venzmer ’72: 116, 117).
An example of mass hysteria is provided by the so-called Children’s
Crusades which took place in 1212 from Burgundy in France and Coilogne in
Germany. In burgundy a Capuchin friar
had issued an appeal for a crusade of the innocents and, at the same time, on
the lower Rhine, hordes of young children crowded round a nine-year-old boy who
wanted to conquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land.
Like an avalanche the procession of children grew at each place it
passed, nobody could stop them. Obsessed
by their faith and their visions, they regarded theselves as soldiers of
Christ. The fate of both children’s
crusades was terrible. After the more
than twenty thousand yong members of the Fench children’s crusade had wandered
throught eh Rhone Valley, devastating it, they rached Marseilles and were
embarked into seven ships by cunning speculators, ostensibly in order to reach
Palestine via Egypt. As soon as they
arrived at Alexandria, however, they were driven toteh slave-markets and
sold. The participants of the German
children’s crusade fared no better. They
wandered southward across difficult Alpine passes. Thousands were left behind on the wayside to
starve and die. Of the twenty thousand
who had set out from Cologne, only a few thousand rached the towns of Piacenza
and Genoa, whence they were rapidly dispatched to Brindisi. There they waited in vain for the fulfilmnet
of the prophecy made by the friar when he had called for the crusade: for the
Mediterranean to dry up so that they could continue their journey. Of the twenty thousand children only two
returned to Cologne, completely reduced by famine (Venzmer ’72: 131).
Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen enacted
sanitary regulatiosn and introduced doctor’s licenses during the 1230s. Prior to this, in 1225, he founded the
University of Naples. He also initiated
a nine-year medical course which ended with a state examination, he introduced
the professional establishment of doctors, rules governing fees, pharmaceutical
regulations and public instructions regarding hygiene (Venzmer ’72: 114). Before
the edict of Frederick II of 1240 pharmacy and medicine were not separate
occupations. The edict contained three
regulations that provided the legal basis for the separation of pharmacy as an
independent branch of health services: (1) separation of the pharmaceutical
profession from the medical profession; (2) official supervision of
pharmaceutical practice; and (3) obligation by oath to prepare drugs reliably,
according to skilled are, and in a uniform, suitable quality. Two other principles of the edict greatly
affected the future practice of pharmacy in many European countries, (1) the limitation
of the number of pharmacies within a designated geographic and political entity
and (2) the fixing of the prices of drugs by the government. (Smith ’75: 2).
Having died down, the plague only appeared in isolated cases here or
there, but its virulence seemed broken.
It only reawoke eight hundred years later, but this time with such force
that in four months it wiped out forty-two million people. In Europe alone tenty-five million people
died. The plague began in 1347 during a
dry summer and travelled with terrifying speed westwards across India and
south-west Russia. It is still possible
to determine the place where it took off for Europe, this was the seaport then
called Caffa, now known as Feodosiya, on the south-eastern tip of the Crimea in
the Black Sea, and which served the city republics of Genoa and Venice as a
base for their own overseas commerce and as a port fort the trans-shipment of
merchandise for their trade with the Far East.
When the Tartars lured to Caff by the warehouses belonging to the rich
city republics, encircled and besieged the town, the Christian defenders were
in a sore plight. They were on the point
of surrendering when plague broke out in the Tartar camps. The besiegers died in their thousands and
there was nothing left for the rest of the host but to flee back to the steppes
from whence they had come. The
jubilations of the besieged Christians at this unexpected change in their
fortunes turned out to be premature.
Before they moved off, the Tartars used their siege machines to catapult
into the town a number of plague corpses.
They achieved their object in full measure. The plague spread among the Italians with
terrifying speed. Full of horror, the
Christians embarked for home in their galleys, but most of the sailors died of
plague before they ever reached Italy. According to some reports, only ten out
of a thousand refugees reached their home ports, and when they landed, the
plague came with them. In no time it had
travelled throughout Italy, and reached France.
It was not long before the epidemic was rife from the Far East to the
North Sea, from Sicily to Greenland. On
the Green Island, death was so widespread, that the discovery of America, which
had been made by the Norsemen one-and-a-half centuries before Columbus, was
completely forgotten, so the man from Genoa was able to discover the New World
again in 1492 (Venzmer ’72: 124).
Doctors who did not flee, convinced of the uselessness of their
efforts, carried out their work dressed in fantastic protective clothing, which
covered the face and was equipped with a beak-like container over the
nose. This was filled with powerful
aromatics intended to protect the doctor from the pestilential vapour, for in
all contemporary reports the dreadful, unbearable stench of the plague
sufferers and corpses is emphasized.
Clothes were soaked in essences of amber, cinnamon, cloves, mace, attar
of roses, camphor and saffron in order to keep away the plague stench. Pope Clement VI issued the well-meant
proclamation calling for a pilgrimage to Rome for Easter 1348 in order to
conquer the plague by the power of faith.
The opposite was achieved. The
plague raged worse than ever among the 1,200,000 people gathered together in
Rome. If contemporary accounts can be
believed, not even a tenth of the pilgrims was spared. To be sure the Pope has shut himself up in
his palace in Avignon. The people,
turned half-mad by the horrors surrounding them concocted the most fantastic
ideas about he origin of the great death.
They hit on the idea that the Jews were the malefactors. Entire Jewish communities were wiped out, in
some places the Jews were simply driven into their synagogues which were then
set on fire. However , when it was noticed the uncleanliness, dirt and
putrefaction helped to spread the plague, strict regulations controlling
hygiene were introduced into the cities.
For the first time the authorities began to concern themselves with
cleaning the streets, garbage, animal corpses and offal were no longer allowed
to be thrown into the streets, they now had to be cleared away. Sick people, or those only suspected of
suffering from plague, were kept strictly isolated, the bodies were removed at
night and the possessions of the dad destroyed.
Often the very houses in which the plague had been especially fierce were
burnt (Venzmer ’72: 125, 126).
After Girolama Fracastro passed his examinations, he down as a doctor
in a country house near Verona, surrounded by telescopes, globes and
books. Contagious diseases were his
special interest, he was however especially drawn towards new epidemic disease
which reached the Old World after Columbus returned from America. The famous explorer’s sailors brought the
venereal disease syphilis, back with them from the New World. Fracastro postulated that conquistadores had
profaned local gods during their conquest of the New World and they were
punished for this with a horrible epidemic which, since time immemorial, had
been haunting the native populations in his three volumes entitled De Syphilide
Sive de Morbo Gallico (About syphilis or the French sickness). Fracastro next widened the scope of his
research to include other contagious or infectious diseases as well, such as
plague, leprosy, erysipelas, anthrax, tuberculosis, typhus and scabies. He was the first to refer to specific fevers
and stated clearly and unambiguously the belief that all these diseases were
called forth by an infecting agent or contagium. He recognized that this infecting agent could
be transmitted in three ways, either directly by physical contact from person
to person, or by using objects which had been contaminated by the contagium, or
finally, by air containing the infecting agent.
If Fracastro had been able to avail himself of a microscope and had
recognized his contagium as being a tiny living creature, he would rightly be
regarded today as the found of the theory of infectious and contagious disease
(Venzmer ’72: 136).
The Renaissance was period full of contradictions and paradoxes. While the ancient skills and sciences were
putting out glorious new blossoms, violence and murder, cruelty and inhumanity,
dagger and poison were rife. The era of
humanism was anything but human, the beginnings of public hygiene, created
during the plague epidemics had already been forgotten again. Never had the streets been so filthy. During the years to come, the term heresy
came to be applied to everything that displeased the Church. Sectarians were attacked with unparalleled
brutality, the towns and villages in which they lived were raised to the
ground. In the Dominican Order, the Pope
found a congregation which devoted itself, with exemplary zeal, to the
extermination of heresy. The Inquisition
was established and torture introduced.
The Domincans were delegated to carry out these procedures and as a
result they acquired almost supreme power.
They did not concern themselves with worldly justice, all measures were
justifiable in cases where heresy was suspected. Because of their constant pursuit of heresy,
the Dominicans who, like the secret police centuries later, were accountable to
no one, formed a regular state within the state. Ian unprecedented psychosis took hold of the
people, even those belonging to the intellectual, civilized ranks of society
were overcomes by the manic belief in devils and demons which was to continue
to hold sway over men’s minds for centuries to come. In 1448 Pope Innocent VIII issued his bull
Summis Desiderantes Affectibus, summoning the clergy to exercise no mercy in
their pursuit of heresy but use harshest measures to destroy it. A figure was formed which was presented to
the people as public enemy number one, the witchThe persecution of witches was
reduced to a simple and straightforward system when the inquisitors, Heinrich
Kramer and Jacob Sprenger wrote The
Hammer of Witches (Malleus
Malefacarum) which appeared in 1487. In
the 650 printed pages was set out which kind of people should count as witches
and what kinds of bewitchment there were.
A translator called the book “an incredible monster filled with an
intellectual stench and decided that in the arguments which in his view
bordered on stupidity, but a stupidity shot with theological pride, a
cold-blooded, idle cynicism supervented, a wretched and contemptible
predilection for tormenting people which constantly reawakens the reader’s
wrath and uttermost bitterness over this monstrous religious mania.” This was
the unbridled, habitual sadism, a perverted bloodlust, of the inquisitors and a
bestial delight in tormenting people, especially when the victims were of the female
sex (Venzmer ’72: 157, 159, 160).
Before the offenders were brought in for torture, they were bathed, in
some places their hair was also dressed and then they were stripped in order to
discover whether any kind of witch’s instrument had been sewn into their
clothes, instruments they were frequently supposed to have been taught by
demons to make form the bones of an unbaptized boy. As a further precaution the hair should be
shaved from every part of the body for the same reason as the removal of the clothes
had been recommended. For they have
sometimes, in order to further their witchcraft, hidden some superstitious
amulet made of certain things, either among their clothes or the hair of their
body and sometimes even in the most secret, unmentionable places. After she had been prepared in this way, the
witch was laid naked on a bench for examination and every part of her body,
however concealed, subjected to the most embarrassingly exact scrutiny, in the
search for a witch-sign. Such things as
moles, warts and the like were counted as witch-signs, red hair was itself
highly suspicious. That the whole
procedure only served to satisfy the perverse titillation of the inquisitors is
best shown by the fact that the outcome was always the same, no matter what the
examination revealed. If the stigma
diabolicum was found it was a sure sign of the victim’s relationship with the
devil, if it was missing, this was an even more conclusive proof for the devil
could naturally be expected to protect his strumpet. Two-thirds of his property would go to the
public treasury and the remaining third would be divided among judge,
inquisitors, denunciators, torturers and executioner. The numbe of victims
claims by the withc-hunts, which lasted for three hundred years, is reckoned by
historians to be btween five and six million people, it therefore caused more
deaths than all the wars waged over that period. People today may find it hard to understand
how civilized people could put up with having their nearest relatives imprisoned,
tortured, and finally burnt alive, as a result of an anonymous denunciation
(Venzmer ’72: 161-163).
In 1493, the year Columbus embarked on his second voyage of discovery,
Paracelsus was born. The son of a doctor
he went on rounds and became aware of the mountains, woods and plants. After his mother died he went to the
University of Ferrara to study medicine and become a doctor like his
father. After graduating he travelled
until acquired citizenship in Strasburg in 1526, after acehiving one or two
sensational cures he was appointed doctor to the city during the following year
and at the same time was granted the right to hold lectures at the
university. The advertisement he
circulated, promised, “We shall free medicine from its worst errors. Not by following the teaching of the
ancients, but by our own observation of nature, by long practice, confirmed by
experience. Who does not know that most
doctors practicing today commit grave errors to the hurt of their
patients”. Paracelsus was the first to
lecture in the German language. He had to flee town in February 1528 laughed
at, mocked and scorned. Paracelsus is
responsible for the well-known saying “all things are poison, and nothing
except poison, it is only the dosage which stops it being poisonous”. He died
in Salzburg at the early age of forty-eight.
Michaelango modeled the human body with accuracy and vitality which
had not been known since the day of classical antiquity. Leonardo da Vinci,
painter, architect, aesthete, anatomist, astronomer, physician, mechanic,
builder of fortifications and many-sided inventor, was a man already advanced
in years. In order to pursue his
anatomical studies, he stole the human corpses from which he made his superb drawings. He never published these, however, but kept
them secret and they were not discovered until the beginning of the 20th
century. Andreas Vesalius was born on New Year’s Day 1515. After dissecting animals as a child he
studied medicine at the University of Paris.
However he soon found out that he could learn nothing from his teachers
and then began a sinister interlude in his life. During the darkness of the night, he made his
way to the cemeteries and execution grounds, unearthed the bodies which had
recently been buried and secretly dissected them. He studied and studied, and the more deeply
he penetrated into the secrets of the human body, the more clearly Galen’s
errors caught his eye. Where was the
heart-bone? Where the passage joining
stomach and spleen? At the age of twenty
one he received the permission of the university to dissect corpses and hold
anatomical lectures. On 5 December 1537
a degree as doctor of medicine at the University of Padua was conferred on him
with all the pomp usual at that time, and only days later when he was not quite
twenty three he was appointed professor of anatomy and surgery. The following year he published an anatomical
atlas with six entirely original clear diagrams which were soon immensely
popular with students. With woodcuts
done by his assistant Stephan van Kalkar, he published a 7 volume work on
anatomy titled De Humani Corporis Fabrica
in Basle in 1543. Later he became court physician to Charles V. When Charles V
retired to a monastery, handing over the scepter to his morose son, Philip II,
Vesalius was accused of working on a body only seemingly, whose heart was still
beating, wherefore he was arrested by the Inquisition and imprisoned. Only Philip II’s intercession saved him from
the intended punishment and changed into a vow to go on pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. On his return voyage,
Vesalius was shipwrecked on the Greek island called Xanthe, solitary, abandoned
and unknown the greatest anatomist of all time died there of hunger and
exhaustion (Venzmer ’72: 138, 143, 145, 146-148).
During the Renaissance, clinical observation and knowledge gained at
the patient’s bedside came more and more into their own. The first regulation
defining the functions of the physician and the apothecary was issued by Henry
VIII in 1511. After the formation of the
College of Physicians, later known as the Royal College of Physicians, in 1540,
the apothecaries were placed under the more direct regulation of the
College. This did not last long, and by
1543, an act was passed giving the right of “every person being the King’s
subject having knowledge and experience of the nature of herbs, roots and
waters to use and minister, according to their cunning, experience and
knowledge” (Smith ’75: 3). Jean Fernel, who lived from 1506 to 1588
published a three part work under the encyclopaedic title A Universal Medicine. He was
the first to include physiology and pathology with therapy. He was the first to distinguish gonorrhea
from syphilis. In 1510 John Caius was
born in England and as Court physician for both Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth was successful in
changing the despised Guild of Barbers into the respected profession of
surgical doctors. Ambroise Pare of
France, was also born in 1510. It was
decided to train the intelligent boy to become a barber and when he was
thirteen he was apprenticed to amaster barber called Vialet. He packed up and walked to Paris. He used the money he had saved to study at
the School of Barbers, attended lectures on anatomy nadn was lucky to be
numbered among the few pupils who were assigned to the Parisian hospital, the
Hotel Dieu. He worked and studed there
for three years then when he was twenty-six accompanied Marshall Monejau to the
Franco-German War. The rules of surgery
in those days laid down that, for cases of shot wounds the passage of the wound
should be bathed in boiling elder oil, clrealy a dreadful torture for the
wounded men. After one particularly
heated conflict, Ambroise ran out of elder oil.
He was reluctantly forced to abandon the usual oil treatment and instead
he covered the wounds with a salve made from egg-yolks, attar of roses and
turpentine. Those who had been treated
with the salve felt only a little pain in the wound, and had passed restful
night, those, on the other hand , who had been treated with boiling, were
suffering from fever, were in great pain and had swellings and inflammations in
the region of the wound. In 1545 he
published his first book The Method of
Treatment for Wounds caused by Firearms. Soon his fame as the greatest
surgeon of his time was such that certain jealous colleagues made an
unsuccessful attempt to poison him. In
1554 Henry II made him a master surgeon and in 1563 Ambroise publishd his great
work A Universal Surgery. King Charles IX saved the life of his
Huguenot head surgeon by hiding in one of the wardrobes in his dressing room in
the St. Bartholomew’s massacre of 1572. When Ambroise’s wife died in 1573, he
married again at the age of sixty-three and his second wife, Jacqueline
Rousselet, was also a loyal companion to him.
The jealous members of the medical faculty, including some of his
colleagues who were represented in the College of Surgeons, instituted legal
proceedings against him because his books had ben published without the
approval of the faculty. Pare died in
his eightieth year on 20 December 1590.
By his skill, personality and the maxim he consistently followed,
surgery is learnt with the eyes and the hands, he achieved the foundation of
the Royal Surgical College. Just as
Andreas Vesalius was justly called the father of anatomy so Ambroise Pare
deserves to be known as the father of surgery.
Konrad Gesner, who was born in Zurich in 1516, and Valerius Cordus, born
in Erfurt in 1515, pioneered the science of botany. Cordus identified five hundred new species of
plants and with his Dispnesatorium
Pharmacorum Omnium, quae in usu Potissimum Sunt (Pharmaceutical book of all
useful medicinal plants) (Venzmer ’72: 151, 152-153).
Serveto de Reves, who was primarily a doctor and scholar of the
Church, came to the conclusion during his anatomical studies at the University
of Paris that the pores in the dividing wall of the heart, postulate by Galen
and affirmed mechanically by everyone else since, did not exist. He expressed his views about the movement of
the blood between heart and lungs. The
tial spriit, the arterial blood, leaves the lungs laden with strength, heat,
air, water and fire and enters the left ventricle. The vital spirit is formed as a result of the
mixing of air in the lungs with the blood which reaches the lungs from the
right ventricle and is afterwards hurled into the left ventricle. This connection is not made across the wall
of the heart, but very cunningly, the blood is pumped out of the right ventricle
and conducted to the lungs. The lungs
make the blood bright and fresh, and then, via the arteries it is passed to the
veins, from which it is pumped into the left ventricle and so reaches all the
arteries of the body. At the age of forty Serveto published a second
theological work De Christianismi
Restitutione, and sent a copy to Calvin, who threatened him with death if
he should ever come to Geneva, and turned him into the Inquisition. Serveto was arrested in Lyons but since he
badly guarded he escaped. He hid in a
Cistercian monastery but, three months later, it seemed as if an irresistible
urge was driving him into danger. In
July 1553 he travelled to Geneva and put up in a little-known inn. He was recognized and soon Calvin threw him
in prison and kept him there for three months during which time he was
subjected to the most unspeakable bodily and mental agonies. He begged to be allowed someone to defend him
at his forthcoming trial, but Calvin, replied mockingly, “So great a liar needs
no defence”. Serveto’s trial took place
on 27 October 1553 and he was condemned to be brunt at the stake immediately
afterwards. On his way to the execution
ground, the broken man begged to be put to death by the sword rather than the
fire, but his prayers fell on deaf ears.
Serveto was to be burnt to death as slowly as possible in damp straw
(Venzmer ’72: 168, 170).
The first people who courageously took up the fight against the mass
hysteria of witch-hunting, were the famous humanists Cornelius Agrippa of
Nettesheim and Johannes Weye, a doctor from Cleves, who was born in 1515 in the
town of Grave on the River Maas south of Nijmegen. At the age of seventeen Johannes Weyer became
a student of Agrippa in Bonn. It was from
him that Johannes Weyer learnt to detest the madness of the witch-trials, the
barbarous tortures, the ordeals by fire and water and last but not least, the
stake. He graduated as a doctor of mediince at twentytwo and proved himself to
be a competent clinician during his work in the Paris hospitals. Weyer’s greatest service,k however, consisted
of his opposition to the witch-hunt with all the eloquence at his command, and
undeterred, he courageously expressed the opinion that witches were not the
devil’s strumpets but unfortunate mental cases.
Promotoed to the position of personal physician to the tolerant and
intelligent William III, Duke of Juiers-Cleves-Berg, Johann Weyer spent his
spare time writing a book about folly and superstition. Almost all theologians are silent in the face
of this godlessness, the doctors suffer it, the lawyers practice it, caught
fast in prejudice. Wherever I go there
is no one, no one who out of pity for humanity reveals the labyrinth, or raises
his hand to heal the deadly wound. So I
have taken over this heavy matter which disgraves our Christian faith with my
humble service to dare. But centuries
were to pass before Johann Weyer’s brave act found its full reward. After the madness of the witch hunts had
rached its height during the seventeenth century, men appeared who, by word
andeed, set themselves against the most destructive and most abominable
spiritual epidemic of mankind. Friedrich
von Spee-Langenfeld, Jesuit priest, divine, poet, and protessor in Cologne,
Paderborn, Wurzrug, Pene and Trier, became a benefactor of mankind as a result
of his brave battle against the burning of witches in the first quarter of the
seventeenth century, but again more than a century was to pass before documents
relating to witch trials gradually disappeared from criminal proceedings. In England
the Grocer’s Company was granted official status as a guild by King James I in
1607. In 1617 they formed a separate
Society of the Art and Mysteries of the Apothecaries. It was not
until the middle of the eighteenth century, that common sense began to triumph
over the madness and the spiritual epidemic, which had afflicted people fro
three hundred years, began to die away.
Opposition to the delusion grew stronger everywhere, people began to
feel ashamed of the witch-hunts and the crime of witchcraft was removed from
the statute book. The last official
trials for witchcraft were held in 1754 and 1756 in Landshut, Bavaria, and in
1782, a servant girl was executed for witchcraft in Glarus, Switzerland. As late as 1836, however, on the Hela
peninsula, young woman was put to the witch-test, found guilty and drowned
(Venzmer ’72: 164, 165, 166).
XIX. Scientific Revolution
The man to whom we owe this intervention of the microscope, described
as the “the first great gift which applied physics passed on to medicine”, was
Antnius van Leeuwenhoek. He was born on
24 October 1632 in Delft, south of the Hague.
He ran away from school when he was only sixteen, and apprenticed to a
merchant for five years in Amsterdam to return home and be a middle-class
Dutch, grocer and cloth merchant and start a family. Leeuwenhoek had a strange hobby. He ground lenses out of fine glass. He had learnt this craft from the opticians,
who enjoyed a particularly high reputation in Holland, and he spent a lot of
time and took pleasure form the fact that the instrument he had constructed
shoed objects several times magnified.
He constantly went on improving his miracle, enlisting the aid of a
little concave mirror, which focused the light needed for his intricate
examinations and the microscope was born.
Through his microscope which showed him a miniature world magnified at
most 150 to 200 times he noticed enormous quantities of tiny, moving,
multifarious animalcules in a drop of water.
He documented his study of microbiology meticulously. Leeuwenhoek reported everything he had
discovered to the Royal Society of Sciences in London and was made a member of
that learned society. After a long life spent in pioneering research with his
microscope, he died at the age of ninety-two.
Sir Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Albans, one time lord
chancellor of England, had announced a reorganization of the sciences or
Insauratio Magna (the grand instauration).
In accordance with this, scientific thought was to be based on
methodical discovery and invention, on research and experience. Filled with a deep aversion towards
scholastic philosophy, Bacon proclaimed the principle that only independent
searching and perception, free of all inherited phantoms, superstitious
prejudice and dogma, could form a true picture of the sciences. Bacon included physics and chemistry in his
philosophy of experience, the preservation of health, the healing of disease
and the prolonging of human life he regardedas the chief tasks of
medicine. 184 Rene Descartes, was a French philosopher
appointed to the court of Queen Christina of Sweden in Stockholm. His best known saying is “Cogito ergo sum” I think, therefore I
am. He died in Stockholm in 1650 at the
age of fifty-four. (Venzmer ’72: 177,
179, 180, 183, 185).
Thomas Sydenhma, who was even in his own days known as the English
Hippocrates, had an eventful life story.
Born in 1624, son of a distinguished Puritan landowner in Wynford Eagle,
Dorsetshire, he joined Cromwell’s army during the Civil War. After the Royalists had been beaten he was
discharged and in 1642 at the age of eighteen went to study at Oxford, still undecided
which discipline to pursue. A doctor
called Cox, who was a friend of his, persuaded him to study medicine and in
1648 Stydenham, who, as an ex-soldier in the Parliamentary army, enjoyed
special privileges, became a bachelor of the arts in medicine. When Charles II landed in Scotland, Sydenham
rejoined the army, he took part in the insuring war as a captain of
cavalry. In 1651 Cromwell defeated
Charles II at Worcester, the time had come for Sydenham to return to private
life once more. For his services during the war against the Royalists he
received a gift of £600. This sum
enabled him to establish himself as a doctor in Westminster, south of what was
later to be St. James’s Square. He was
thirty-seven years old before he began to practice medicine, it soon became
clear, however, that he was taking an entirely different path from that
followed by the general medical science of his day. Sydenham did not believe that a practical
system of medicine could be built up on the result of contemporary scientific
research. He was much more concerned
with concentrating on the sick man and his diseases. He published excellent descriptions of
smallpox, dysentery, scarlet fever, measles and malaria, in fact, infectious
diseases were his special interest.
Thomas Sydenham was chiefly responsible for establishing quinine, the
Jesuit’s powder” which had first reached the Old World from the New in 1630, in
the European pharmacopoeia. Thomas
Sydenham’s work introduced a new era of medical science (Venzmer 194).
The demand for leeches became prodigious: in 1827 thirty-three million
leeches were imported into France, in 1833 the number was forty-three million.
The French Revolution did not merely destroy, it created three schools of
medicine. Pierre-Joseph Desault was the
head surgeon of the Hotel Dieu and one of the most outstanding surgeons of his
time, was appointed director the new school.
He had been arrested in 1793 in the middle of a lecture but had been set
free again after only a few days. The stethoscope was invented by Rene
Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (dob 1781).
A French chemist from Paris called Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, was an
extremely discerning observer, who studied law and natural science and when he
was only twenty-five, entered the French Academy of Sciences. He conducted experiments and conceived tests,
that confirmed when inhaling the organism takes oxygen from the surrounding air
in order to maintain the combustion process, which can also be called the
action of living, and that when breathing out, the waste products of the first
of life, carbon dioxide and water are eliminated. He was a victim of the French
Revolution. Since he was one of the
general tax-collectors, the tribunal of the Terror were provided with an easy
pretext for his denunciation. On 8 May
1794 the executioner’s assistant led him to the guillotine. It had been fruitless to point to the
tribunal his great services to medicine.
“The Republic needs no learned men”, came the reply, “Justice must take
its course”. When Lavoisier mounted the
scaffold, the mathematician Lagrange murmured to astronomer Delambre, to have
said it aloud would have been dangerous, One moment suffices to strike off his
head, but perhaps a hundred will pass before we shall see another man of his
statute” (Venzmer ’72: 240, 192, 194, 239, 214).
When Maria Theresa began her reign in 1740, she recognized that a
thorough reform of university education was urgently needed. As chance would have it, the Archduchess
Maria Anna, Maria Theresa’s heavily pregnant sister, lay seriously ill in Brussels
at that time, and neither Maria theresa’s personal physician, Engels, nor the
other doctors in Brussels who were called in, were able to help. The court therefore decided to consult a
doctor at the famous Leiden clinic and the choice fell on Gerard von
Swieten. His demeanour impressed her so
greatly that without hesitation, in a warm-hearted personal letter which still
is in existence, she appointed the forty-five-year-old doctor to be her
personal physician in Vienna. Under von
Swieten’s direction and with Maria Theresa’s sympathetic sypport, not only the
medical but the entire Austrian medical practice was fundamentally reorganized,
and von Swieten was himself appointed director and president of the medical
faculty by imperial patent. A doctor from the Rhineland, Johann Peter Frank
(1745-1821) conceptualized a comprehensive state health welfare system “The
inner security of the State is the object of the public police intelligence, a
very considerable part of this is to know how to manage the health and welfare
of people living in communities, and that of the animals which they need for
their work and subsistence, according to certain laws”. These words heralded a new era in medical
history and particularly in that branch of medicine which was concerned with
public hygiene, health welfare, with what we would today call sanitary
inspectors and with official measures to prevent disease, epidemics, plagues,
etc. He also recognized that prevention
was at least as important as the recognition and treatment of disease. He is
remembered as one of the most important doctors of all time and above all as
the founder of public health welfare” (Venzmer ’72: 206, 227, 229).
Edward Jenner entered London University when he was twenty-one and
after completing his studies, settled down as a doctor in Berkeley. His professional duties frequently took him
to the estates which were situated near his country home, there he had to
inoculate the men and maidservants against smallpox which was generally done by
letting pus of variola dry on the end of threads and then introducing the
weakened smallpox virus into scratches mad in the skin. For experience had shown that as a result of
variolation of this kind, people went through a milder, local form of this
disease and remained protected for the rest of their lives against the serious,
mortal and disfiguring general disesease.
Jenner noticed time and again that in some people the inoculation
disease took a more or less acute course, while others suffered no inoculation
disease at all, and, as he was an intelligent man with acute poers of
observation , who was used t probing a question to the limit, he was determined
that cow-pox (variolae vaccinae) could be transmitted to humans who, suffered
no injury as a result, except for few harmless local pustules. Again and it was confirmed that those
menservants and maids on whom the smallpox inoculations had no effect had
previously suffered an attack of cow-pox, sometimes a great many years earlier. Jenner found out that country folk were well
aware of this relationship and when he wanted to variolate a young maid she
told him there was no need as she had already had cowpox and so could never get
smallpox. At that moment Jenner had the
great flash of inspiration to inoculate people with harmless cow-pox virus
instead of the dangerous smallpox virus. As Jenner’s idea triumphed in 1802
parliament presented the indefatigable champion of vaccination with an
honorarium amounting to ten thousand pounds and the protective vaccination with
cow-pox became the public property of all civilized nations. Edward Jenner died in Berkely, his home town,
on 26 January 1823, highly respected and honoured as a benefactor to mankind. In 1857 the grateful British people put up a
monument to him, now to be found in Kensington Garden in London (Venzmer ’72:
230, 231).
Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis was born in 1818, the son of a rich Budapest
grocer. When he was nineteen, he entered
Vienna University originally intending to study jurisprudence. However he soon recognized his true vocationa
dn without a moment’s hesitation, changed course and enrolled himself in the
medical faculty. In 1844, when he was
tenty-six, he took the State medical examination and shortly afterwards was
appointed an assistant in the obstetrics department of the Vienna General
Hospital. It soon occurred to the young
doctor, who was as ambitious as he was talented, that in the clinical division
in which medical students were receiving their obstetrical training, the
mortality from the dreadful puerperal fever of women in childbed was five to
ten times as great as in the other division.
Althouth at that time no on ehad any idea that this disease was due to a
tiny, living micro-organism. Semmelwis was too critical a person to be
satisfied with the nonsensical explanations put forward by the prfessors, viz
because of the wounded sense of shame, caused by the students examining the
women in childbed, the latter’s resistance to disease was reduced. With the tenacity of mind which was characteristic
of him, he determined to find out the cause of this terrible disease which
killed so may people, and a singular chance gave him a lead. After Semmelwis had returned from a journey,
he learnt, to his consternation, that Kolletschka, the lecturer in forensic
medicine, who was a friend of his, had died during his absence. He had lost his life in a strange manner,
during a post-mortem examination one of his students had carelessly cut
Kolletschka’s finger with a dissecting knife.
As a result, the lecturer had contracted the blood-poisoning which had
ended in his death. It was he and his
students who were bringing the poison of the dreadful puerperal fever to the
mothers, for, every morning, before he went on his rounds, he was in the
mortuary demonstrating to his students, by means of dissections, the effects of
the disease on the patients who had died.
Instantly, he ordered what to us today would seem obvious but in those
days seemed revolutionary, that any one touching a mother in childbed must clean
himself beforehand and wash his hands thoroughly in chlorinated water. Success was not long in coming, while in
April 1846, in the clinic for which Semmelweis was responsible, eighteen out of
a hundred mothers in childbed died of puerperal fever, after Semmelweis
introduced washing in chlorinated water in May, the number of death in June was
just over two and in July only one per hundred.
What happened next reminds us of Goethe’s words “we would rather admit
our moral errors, mistakes and crimes than our scientific ones”. The embarrassing thiry-three
year-old-assistant was dismissed when his service contract expired. Semmelweis tried to stifle his dreadful
disappointment by throwing himself into experiments on animals, with some
publications. However, the influence of
Klein, the head of the hospital in which Semmelwis had been employed, was still
so great that Semmelweis’s application for an appointment as private lecturer
was rejected. It was only after the urgent
persuasion of his friends that he submitted a second application to the
faculty. A whole string of arguments
took place, the great Rokitansky concluded them with the words, “Semmelweis has
a claim to the gratitude of the whole world” and the second application for the
private lectureship was granted. However
Semmelweis was not to be permitted to undertake any post-mortems during his
teaching activities. Semmelweis only
stayed in this degrading situation for a few days, then he resigned his post
and returned to Budapest. He had hardly
left Vienna, however, when the number of deaths from puerperal fever again shot
up to its former level. At Budapest
University he was raised to the status of professor and put down all he had
discovered in a small book which was published in 1861, Its title The Causes, Concept and Prevention of
Puerperal Fever. Then, however, his
mind began to become deranged. His
attacks against the doctors who did not approve of his theories passed all
bounds, he did not hesitate to describe his colleagues as murderers. His behavior became more and more
frightening, and he had to give up his work at the university. In the hope that he might recover in
Vienna. However, the unrestrained fits
of rage which seized Semmelweis, who was suffering from dementia paralytica, made
necessary his transfer to a mental institute.
A slight finger injury led to blood-poisoning, and two weeks after his
admission to the mental institute there died, at the age of forty-seven the man
who is known to posterity as the saviour of mothers (Venzmer ’72: 260).
Louis Pasteur was born in 1822 and then began a career of singular
productivity. His most popular
discoveries was “pasteurization” and a vaccine against rabies, which he made
from the dried spinal marrow of dogs suffering from hydrophobia. When the indefatigable scientist was
sixty-seven, his grateful fellow countrymen erected in his honor the famous
Pasteur Institute which was to become a place of pilgrimage for microbe-hunters
from all over the world. On 28 September
1895 the seventy-three-year-old Louis Pasteur died at his country estate near
Versailles, laden with all the honors of this world, one of the most popular
learned figures of this time. No sooner
had Joseph Lister, born in 1827, resolved to find a method of caring for wounds
which would eliminate the dreaded suppuration. It was a study of fractures
which gave Lister the idea that provided the break-through. He asked himself why a simple fracture always
healed cleanly whereas a compound one, ie. A fracture which pierced the skin
and often left the broken bone sticking out of the wound, was almost always
accompanied by suppuration. It was not
long before he realized that in the compound fractures the germs, which
according to Pasteur’s theories were everywhere present in the air, had caused
the suppuration. Surely this assumption
could also be extended to cover all other wounds whether they were accidental
or brought about by surgical intervention.
Lister did not hesitate to draw practical conclusions form his
deliberations and the idea of antisepsis was born. The most suitable chemical substancve tested
for this purpose proved to be a solution of carbolic acid. On 12 August 1865 Joseph Lister performed his
first antiseptic operation, it inaugurated a new era in surgery. Everything which in any came into contact
with the surgical wound was rendered germ-free by being washing in a solution
of carbolic acid, even the air in the operating was sprayed with it. The number of death from amputation had been
over fifty per cent and during the first three years after the introduction of
antiseptic measures, this number dropped to around fifteen per cent. After this, suppuration, gangrene and
erysipelas became rarities. In 1877 he was appointed professor of clinical
surgery in King’s College, London in 1884 Queen Victoria raised him to the
peerage. Lister did not take the credit
for introducing the idea of antisepsis into surgical procedures but
unreservedly acknowledge Semmelweis’s prior claim Lister died in 1912 at the age of eighty-five.
It was left for German surgeon, Ernst von Bergmann (1836-1907) a surgeon in
four wars, to crown Lister’s pioneering work by developing antisepsis into
asepsis. From the process of
germ-destruction he moved on to a method of working which was germ-free right
from the start, as it is practiced in all the clinics in the world today
(Venzmer ’72: 267, 268, 269).
Rudolf Virchow was born on 13 October 1821 in Schiverlbein, Pomerania,
the only son of the local treasurer of the municipal council. He studied medicine in Berlin where in 1843
he graduated as a doctor. Virchow said,
“if the cells are the elementary constituents of the organism – its ultimate
basic organized units in which the healthy signs of life occur- then the
diseased, pathological processes must also have their seat in these same
cells”. He quickly became a skilled surgeon and when he was only twenty-six he
had acquired enough pathological experience that in 1847 he founded a new
medical journal of his own called Archive of Pathological Anatomy and
Physiology and of Clinical Medicine. In
the March Revolution of 1848 Virchow was an active democratic fighter. The events of the time made him express
extreme liberal views on the urgen medical reforms which were needed. After the reactionaries won in 1849 he was
reappointed only with numerous applications and protests from friends and
medical societies, and then only after a cut in salary and subject to
cancellation at any time. In 1856 he was called back to the capital as
professor in ordinary, and a pathological institute was built for him there and
he was appointed its director. Two years
later, his fundamental work was published Cellular Pathology and its Foundation
in Physiological and Pathological Histology.
Virchow went on working to a great age, indefatigably active in many
different spheres. He was awarded every
imaginable honor and on his eightieth birthday, deputations came from countries
all over the world to offer him their homage and congratulations. A year later on 5 September 1902 the greatest
scholar of the age went to his eternal rest. When he was once called to the
bedside of a very wealthy old woman and found the entire family waiting for his
verdict in an ante-room, he told them “You must be prepared for the worst –
your wealthy old aunt is going to get better” (Venzmer ’72: 278, 279, 280,
282).
Robert Koch was twenty-two years old when Lister performed his first
antiseptic operation. Koch began an
unparalleled rise from unknown district physician. First, he explained the secrets of the life
of the Anthrax bacillus. Next he turned his attention to the
suppuration of wounds and proved that this was caused by various animate
microbes, again a scientific feat. It
was not long before Koch was called to the Imperial Public Health
Adminsitration in Berlin, embarked on research into tuberculosis. On 24 March 1882 with the modesty of true
genius, he was able to make known to a meeting of the Physiologica society in
Berlin that he had found the consumption germ to be a rod-shaped fission-fungus
which was between one-and-a-half and three-and-a-half thousandths of a
millimeter long and barely half a thousandth of a millimeter thick. His fame could no longer be checked. He was awarded honors and distinctions on all
sides and became the most well-known and renowned scientist of his era. Robert Koch did not discover the germs of all
contagious diseases, what he did achieve, however, by his tenacious,
unflinching work was the creation of the initial procedures which made possible
the construction of an original scientific bacteriology. By a brilliant process
of synthesis of many individual discoveries an entirely new science was
created. He taught people to understand
thenature of infectious diseases and epidemics and the manner in which they
were transmitted. He also made clear why
uncleanlinesss, dirt and disease are so closely connected, called into being a
new public health service and so by his work, introduced an entirely new era for
all humanity. At the age of fifty Robert
Koch stood at the peak of his fame, but he was still the modest unassuming
person he had been as a schoolboy, student and doctor. The entire civilized world overwhelmed him
with honors on account of the health and happiness he had brought to people in
very continent. However his marriage
fell apart and he divorced his first wife and married Kedwig Freiberg, who was
only eighteen and whom he had met in the studio of a well-known portrait
painter in Berlin. He never had cause to
repent his decision for his second stood faithfully by his side for the rest of
his life, the unfailing, intelligent, reliable and understanding companion of
his remaining days. For almost fifteen
years, accompanied by his beloved young wife, he travelled all over the world,
to the Orient and India, to Africa, the South Seas, America and Japan, heaping
discovery upon discovery and by his pioneering research laying the foundation
for the conquest of mankind’s worst scourges.
He died after his return home on 27 May 1920, in Baden-Baden, when he
was sixty-seven. Two years after his
death the Institute for Infectious Diseases was renamed the Robert Koch
Institute in honor of his memory (Venzmer ’72: 269, 288).
Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk were the research scientists who developed
sulphonamide. The treatment of bacterial
diseases with chemical substances was a highly uncertain affair right up to the
1930s. They then succeeded in winning
ground in the fight against a number of the most dangerous disease producing
microbes, the spherobacteria or cocci. In an extended series of experiments, a
great number of different kinds of sulphonamide compounds were tested until
finally, a sulphonamide compound was chosen for its effectiveness against a
culture of streptococci. The animal experiments
were promising. When in 1935 people
infected by streptococci were for the
first time cautiously treated with sulphonamide compounds, the preparation
proved just as effective as it was harmless in practical use. Before long, the successes which were
achieved with the new preparation exceeded all expectation, it was therefore
hardly surprising that, in different laboratories all over the civilized world
a feverish search began for further sulphonamide compounds to combat the rest
of the disease bearing spherobacteria.
The mortality rate for pneumonia, for example, fell from 30 percent to
5-6 percent, that in puerperal fever from more than 20 percent to 4
percent. Epidemic cerebro-spinal
meningitis, which only a short time before had carried off half the patients in
chidlren’s hospitals, as also infant erysipelas, which had a mortality rate of
over 90 percent lost their worst terrors (Venzmer ’72: 319, 321).
Alexander Fleming, then chief bacteriologist St. Mary’s Hospital, was
anxious to find bactericidal substances.
In 1928 in the course of research on the growth and qualities of
staphylococci he had prepared a number of cultures in glass dishes, covered
them with glass plates and then gone away for a short holiday. When he returned, the first thing he examined
was the row of cultures and he discovered that the glass plate had slopped off
one of the dishes. Mold fungus germs,
such as are always present in the air of dusty rooms, had penetrated the
staphylococcus culture and spoilt it.
Fleming was just about to throw the dish away when, as luck would have
it, he decided before doing so to give it a rather more thorough
examination. This spontaneous
inspiration was to lead to the most important medical discovery of the 20th
century. Fleming made the observation
that the near those places where the mould fungi had penetrated the
staphulococci, the latter had beung to dissolve. This could only be explained by the fact that
th emould fungi produced a substance hostile to the pyogenic organism. Thirty year before Fleming, a French military
doctor called Ernst Duchesne had published a work entitled The Antagonism between Mould Fungi and Bacteria. In medieval times suppurating wounds were
treated with mouldy bread and an English medical book of 1640 contains the
advice to cover with mould wounds that will not heal. Fleming became highly excited over what he
had seen. Could this spectacular
antagonism between mould fungi and bacteria be exploited in the fight against
infection. Experiments were carried out
with the fungus scientifically Penicillium
and even though the extracts which were obtained from it unquestionably
contained a substance which could check the growth of disease bringing bacteria
it was named Penicillin as a result, this mysterious substance really proved
far too unreliable. During every attempt
to extract it in a pure and stable form from the cultures, it always lost its
effectiveness. Therefore the experimenters regined themselves to the fact that,
because of its instability, penicillin could have no practical significance as a germ-killin
gpreparation. Then, ten years later, the
Second World War broke out in Europe and while seeking effective germ-killing
substances, the Oxford pathologist Dr. Howard Walter Florey and German biochemist,
Dr. Ernst Boris Chain, who had fled from Germany, again took up the research
into penicillin. In 1940 matters had
already advanced far enough for them to risk the transfer form laboratory
experiments to use on actual patients.
After numerous experiments had been made on animals a policeman in
Oxford, who was suffering from an acute case of blood-poisoning caused by
staphylococci, became the first human being to be treated with penicillin. After five days application of the new remedy
the outcome was obvious and the patient’s eventual recovery could be hoped
for. However there was only a very small
store of the medicine and this was soon exhausted. The injections had to be stopped for a few
days, the blood-poisoning returned and the patient died. The next attempt was
not undertaken until a sufficient supply of penicillin was available. The patient was a boy with coxitis, he
recovered. Alexander Feming, Howard
Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945. Shortly before he died of a heart attack on
11 March 1955 Fleming said, “Everywhere I go people want to thank me for saving
their lives. I really don’t know why
they do that. Nature created
penicillin. I only found it” (Venzmer
’72: 324, 325).
Ultra small viruses were discovered by a Russian research scientist
named Ivanosky who was working on the tobacco mosaic disease. Shortly after inventing the term virus a
number of infections attacking both man and animals were recognized as virus
diseases, among others, haemorrhagic smallpox, acute poliomyelitis, rabies,
measles, influenza, chicken-pox, German measles, herpes zoster, mumps,
psittacosis, yellow fever, foot-and-mouth disease, fowl pest, For another forty years the organisms causing
these diseases were regarded as ultra-visible, or beyond visibility, until in
1932 two medical men, E. Paschen and E. Nauck, in the Institute for Marine and
Tropical diseases in Hamburg, succeed in trapping the first virus (Paschen’s
bodies) under the microscope. As a
result, the description ultra-visible was revised, the microorganisms which
passed through the bacteria-proof ultra-filter were thereafter known as
filterable disease-bearing organisms.
However, a further seven years were to pass before the tobacco mosaic
virus gave up its secrets in 1939. The
fact that virology then made progress previously imagind impossible was thanks
to the electron microscope built by German research scientists and which, in
contrast to the usual light microscope, used electron rays insteado f light
rays. Because of the much shorter
wave-length of these rays, the electron microscope, used electron rays instead
of light rays. Because eof the much shorter
wave-length of these rays, the electron microscope possessed a disproportionately
greater power than the light microscope.
It achieves one hundred thousandfold magnifications and more and with
its help it is possible to distinguish objects that are only a millionth of a
millimeter apart. When bacteriological
substances are attacked with preparations such as sulphonamides or antibiotics,
their metabolism is damaged. Viruses,
however, do not have metabolism, they can even be said to have no life of their
own. Like some parasites, they borrow it
from the host cell. Therefore all
measures against viruses must, in the last resort, also be directed against the
host cell. American bacteriologist and
serologist, Max Theiler, born in 1900, carried out research in the yellow fever
firus and developed a yellow fever serum for which he was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Medicine for this scientific feat (Venzmer ’72: 327, 329).
XX. Modern Medicine
People living today can have no conception of the fate confronting
mental patients in those days. They were
not regarded as sick people but as malevolent criminals or people possessed by
the devil and treated accordingly. They
were kept like wild animals and in 1788, count Mirabeau wrote a pamphlet
disclosing the almost incredible conditions which obtained in the Paris lumatic
asylum, Bicetre, the one-time prison.
The new arrivals, he wrote, “are indiscriminately thrown among this wild
crowd of lunatics and from time to time they are shown, like savage beasts, to
the first lout who pays his sixpence”.
Moreover such conditions were by no means restricted to Paris, in a
contemporary travel report from London, for example, it says, “I and my three
little sons went to see the lions, the bridges, the lunatics at Bedlam and
other amusing showpieces in the metropolis”.
The treatment of the deranged people was indescribable. They were locked into box-like cages with
bars. In order to drive the evil spirits
out of them they were whipped with horsewhips or flogged with the birch, they
were forced into straitjackets or covered cribs in which they could not move,
or they were punished by being made to stand for hours chained to the wall with
their arms outstretched, the upper part of their body pulled up on a rope so
that only their toes still touched the ground.
The most dreadful torture, however, was the turning chair. The mental patients were tied to it and then,
by means of special machinery, made to turn at a great speed. Ice-cold showerbaths and plungebaths up to
three hundred times a day complemented the inhuman treatment, gags and
face-masks prevented people form hearing the shrieks and cries of the victims
(Venzmer ’72: 225).
Philippe Pinel was born in 1775, the son of a poor country doctor in
Saint-Andre in the South of France.
Pinel who had come to medicine from philosophy and theology, was appointed
director of the Bicentre Asylum in Paris in 1792. A personal experience caused him to undertake
its reform. A close friend suddenly
developed a psychosis and was sent to Bicentre.
His terror of the treatment meted out was so great that he fled into the
forests near Paris where he fell victim to the wolves. His friend’s tragic fate stirred Pinel’s
conscience. He told himself that is a
man went to his death rather than to Bicetre then the treatment must be as
inhuman as the estimate of the mental patient.
At a time when the equality of men was solemnly being proclaimed on the
Champs de Mars, Pinel, unafraid, came before the Assembly and demanded the same
rights for his deranged inmates. At first, as can be imagined, he encountered
considerable skepticism, especially as the people exercising the revolutionary
power feared that among those locked up in Bicetre there might well turn out to
be enemies of the Republic.
Nevertheless, Pinel succeeded in persuading the head of the Commune, a
man called Gouthon, to visit the asylum.
When Gouthon saw the horde of chained-up, howling and raving patients,
he was so taken aback he told Pinel, “you must be mad yourself, Citizen Pinel,
if you demand that these beasts should be unchained.” However Pinel was not to be discouraged. He would not give up and continued to put
forward his request with kindly obstinacy.
Thanks to his reputation in other branches of the arts, he succeeded in establishing
his view that madness was not a crime but a disease, and he supported this
conception by publishing a medico-philosophical book about mental illness. After that, the fate of the wretched mental
cases was radically changed. The
excellent French School of Psychiatry developed Pinel’s ideas still further,
the prisons for psychotics turned into hospitals in which humane methods of
treatment were employed (Venzmer ’72:
225-226).
Among those who were not satisfied with the prevailing methods of
treating mental illness was a young assistant doctor who was working at the psychiatric
clinic of Vienna University in the 1880s.
His name was Julius Wagner-Jaurreg and he had been born in 1857 in Wels,
Upper Austria. The young
twenty-five-year-old doctor was most depressed by the sad cases of young
mothers who, during delivery or shortly afterwards, fell victim to acute
attacks of derangement or delirium. In
1887 the thiry-year old doctor published a scientific work on the favourable
effet of fever on mental illness. In it
he suggested artificially engendering a healing fever by infecting hopeless
cases with erysipelas or malaria. His
suggestion was ignored, but Wagner-Jaurreg did not falter. During 1907-1909 he treated eighty six
paralytics with tuberculin fever and when several years later, in 1915, he
published a scientific report on the results of this treatment, it was
demonstrated that of the eighty-six, twenty-one were still alive and a third of
these were following their former professions.
Sigmund Freud was born on 6 May 1856 in Freiburg, Moravia, he studied
medicine from 1873 to 1881 and with his colleague, Dr. Joseph Breuer, began to
take an interest in psychopathology and psychotherapy in 1883. They have been able to cure patients
suffering from hysteria by encouraging them to talk. Freud set himself the task of exploring the
subconscious par of the individual psychic life. The psychoanalysis which developed from this,
took the form of the patient telling the doctor, during the course of
conversations, about earlier experiences which had been suppressed. Freud’s theory
suffered from one-sided, over-emphasis on the sexual. According to Freud, neuroses spring up
wherever as a result of external or internal checks, the satisfaction of the
erotic needs is denied in reality. Freud was forced to emigrate from Vienna to
London when he was eighty two where he died, on 23 September 1939 at the age of
eighty-three (Venzmer ’72: 333, 335, 337).
The initiator of the frontal lobotomy or leucotomy, Antonio Moniz, was
awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery in 1949, his procedure, which was
accompanied by a personality change and made people resemble automaton, has
since been abandoned. The young science of psycho-pharmacology has got to know
the so called hallucinogenic substances, only minute doses of which can
reproduce in completely healthy people confusingly exact symptoms of
schizophrenia, psycho-pharmacologists set themselves to find substances which
might counter the hallucinogenic substances created in the organism
itself. The first clear results of this
endeavor are chlopromazin, as also the alkaloid, Reserpin which is obtained
from the root-coverings of the Indian plant Rawolfia serpentine which was
already beings used thousands of years ago.
Because of their suppressive effect on psychotic conditions of
excitement, both medicines now are part of the normal equipment of psychiatric
clinics. After these welcome first
results, a veritable flood of psycho-medicines began to be manufactured, at
first in American and a great may people lapsed into the belief that they could
not live without their tranquilizers.
The misuse of psycho-medicines very quickly began to threaten public
health because of the addictive dangers which constant haphazard usage brought
with it. One thing, since psycho-pharmacology became of the healing methods
used by psychiatrists, the atmosphere in the mental hospital has completely
changed. Harvey Cushing was born in Cleveland, Ohio in 1869 and from 1905 made
considerable advances in the field of neuro-surgery. At the International Medical Congress of 1919
he said, “brain surgery only made rapid progress after the neurologists had
begun to build up their own system of surgery”.
When the International Day of Neurology was held in Bern, in 1931, he
could report the proud results of two thousand operations for tumour of the
brain, with a comparatively low rate of mortality of 11.9 percent. Cushing, who was famous for his extremely
careful way of operating, which was described as a silk technique died in 1939
(Venzmer ’72: 339, 341).
Ferdinand Sauerbruch (1875-1951) was a German surgeon who
introduced a new era into the surgery of
the pleural cavity. As a result of the
differential pressure procedure he invented it became possible to open the
thorax in a low-pressure chamber, without the lung collapsing and respiration
ceasing. Today the differential pressure
procedure has been replaced by endotracheal narcosis and artificial bronchial
respiration. Through the creation of the heart-lung machine, the most difficult
heart operations, such as the artificial replacement of the heart-valve, have
become possible, today thousands of people are walking around with artificial
heart-valves made of Silastik, synthetic material that is not rejected by the
living organism. Electrical pacemakers
machines are set into the pleural cavity to govern the constant stimulation or
regulation f the disturbed activity of the heart. ARtifical kidneys are already keeping alive
people whose own kidneys hve failed. The
kidney patient must report at least once a week to a kidney center there his
blood circulation is connected to the artificial kidney for a certain length of
time and through dialysis the separation of chemical substances, the waste
products can be filtered off outside the body.
Beside this apre parts medicine there is also transplant surgery, which
makes use either of the patient’s own, or another person’s organs, in a totally
amazing development. In Canada a
surgical treatment has recently been developed for angina pectoris, in which
the coronary vessels of the heart have deteriorated or become convulsed. In this, a part of the net which hangs like a
curtain in front of the abdominal viscera, and is well supplied with
blood-vessels, is transplanted on to the heart and tied to the aorta. The blood vessels in the net then grow into
the heart muscle giving it a stronger supply of blood and oxygen. Transplant surgery, which makes use of the
super-cooled foreign organs of people who have died in accidents, is
complicated by the defence mechanism of the organism against foreign
albumen. At the end of 1967 Professor
Christian Barnard, a surgeon in Cape Town, South Africa, succeeded in
transplanting the heart of an accident casualty into a patient whose own heart
was on the point of failing. In 1968
other heart transplants were undertaken with varying success in the U.S.A.
Japan and in Europe. Once the immunity
barrier is conquered and the rejection reaction arrested, a whole new era of
medicine will dawn. 35 percent of all
bedridden patients in hospitals belong to the age group of sixty years and
older. After the age of seventy there
are almost no single disease, in more than three-quarters of the cases, three,
four or more diagnoses must be made simultaneously, for it is frequently a case
of combined disease which stand in close relationship to each other (Venzmer
’72: 341, 342, 345, 346, 350
Today the chief concern of medicine is for those groups of diseases
which are the leaders of the statistical causes of death, the heart-circulatory
diseases and cancer. Prominent experts
on arteriosclerosis are of the opinion that an immoderate consumption of fat is
the chief cause of degenerating arteries, and the conditions resulting from
this. Overweight, blood pressure, chain
smoking of cigarettes, infections such as chronic tonsilitis, too little
exercise and mental worries are additional causes and with all of them the
still unknown great mystery called constitution plays an important role
(Venzmer ’72: 353, 355). In the late 1800s,
Louis Pasteur and other scientists developed the germ theory, the
then-revolutionary idea that disease is caused by microbes. Thanks to the germ theory, medical
researchers began to identify the microbes that caused such killer diseases as
bacterial pneumonia and tuberculosis, and they developed medications that
destroyed them. Antibiotics were so
extraordinarily successful in fighting diseases caused by germs that their
widespread use, starting at the end of World War II, qualifies as a medical
revolution. However, from the 1960s on,
there’s been dramatic rise in diseases and chronic conditions for which there
is no obvious germ-based cause. Asthma
is just one example, it’s not identified with any germ, it’s not infectious and
its incidence has soared in the past four decades. In the early 1900s, Ilya Mechnikov turned his
interests to health and longevity studies.
He became intrigued by the long life spans of Bulgarian peasants. Despite their poverty and rural isolation,
they lived longer than any other group in Europe, even the most privileged.
Their diet was unusually rich in fermented foods, including yogurt. He identified the bacterium used to ferment
these foods and named it Lactobacillus
bulgaricus. These microbes, he
speculated, were responsible for the remarkably long lives of the
Bulgarians. Based on this research,
Mechnikov predicted that beneficial bacteria could be far more important to
human health than disease-causing bacteria (Huffnagle ’07: 11, 12, 16).
Contemporary consumer literature tends to characterize modern medicine as one
of revolution against the obesity of the fast food culture that arose to
constipate the profligate use of antibiotics since the 1960s. The modern medical establishment can likewise
be characterized as a revolution against the mass-marketing of broad-spectrum
antibiotics in the 1940s and 50s, albeit not idealistic, but a harmful
resistance to antibiotics, splintering into a myriad of surgical specialties on
the run from the promise of broad-spectrum antibiotics to cure the chronically
ill patient and set them free HA-14-4-11
IV.
Healthy Diet
The purpose of
this work is to complement allopathic medicine with probiotics and the healthy,
organic, mostly vegan, sugar-free diet, with medicinal herbs and spices as
medically necessary. As the best of
natural medicine is integrated with modern medicine and sanitation people of
the 21st century, will learn to tolerate the communicable diseases
of civilization, and half of children born today are again be expected to live
over 100, as legend has it many tribes did in lightly populated precontact
North America and many other peaceful rural indigenous groups with healthy
cultures. Probiotics should be taken
during, and for a few weeks after, a course of antibiotics. Basically Lactobacillus
spp. are needed to prevent the diarrhea caused by proliferation of antibiotic
resistant organisms, namely Candida
albicans, identified in the gut by banana intolerance and more serious Clostridium difficile treated with
uniquely gut friendly antibiotic metronidazole (Flagyl ER), to prevent a
post-infectious malabsorption problem, particularly amongst vegans who are
prone to vitamin B 12 deficiency, as well as cavities due to Phosphorus
deficiency. At the heart of modern
medicine is that antibiotics, vegan diet and hours of daily exercise are the
cure for bacterial endocarditis - 25 percent chance of dying over 10 years from
rheumatic heart disease caused by Group A Strep - namely Streptococcus pyogenes vegetations on the coronary arteries and
heart muscle. Although not necessarily responsive to antibiotics Type II
diabetes, cancer (oral antifungal Sporonox (itracanazole) and oral suspension
Noxafil are the primary prophylaxis for leukemia, leukopenia, myelopathy and
hypothetically, breast, lung and brain cancer caused by the sale of invasive
pulmonary Aspergillis niger), and obesity
are associated with a sedentary lifestyle and even the grimmest prognosis
improves dramatically with an ambitious daily athletic exercise routine. But injury, arrhythmias, heart failure,
pulmonary disease and arthritis limit the ability to exercise, wherefore
push-ups, pull-ups, crunches, yoga and walking four hours a day where one hour
jogging once sufficed, or one can be exposed to pathogens. It is then that the liver must relearn the
diet of fresh fruit, vegetables and whole grains boiled in water, the medicinal
use of culinary herbs and spices, herbal teas and probiotics.
Eating the standard American diet that’s based on meat and dairy
products, with plenty of white flour and white sugar, one-third of the women
and one-half of the men in the US population die of heart disease. Meanwhile, vegetarians and vegans
(vegetarians who consume no dairy products or eggs) not only have far less
heart disease, but also have lower rates of cancer, hypertension, diabetes,
gallstones, kidney disease and obesity.
Not only is mortality from coronary artery disease lower in vegetarians
than non-vegetarians, but vegetarian diets have been successful in arresting
coronary artery disease. The daily intake of cholesterol by non-vegetarians is
300-500 mg/daily, lacto-ovo-vegetarians 150-300 mg/ daily and vegans zero,
their cholesterol levels were 210, 161 and 133 respectively, safe levels of
cholesterol are less than 150. The ideal
ratio of total cholesterol to HDL (high-density lipoproteins) is 3.0 to 1 or
lower, the average American male’s ratio is 5.1 to 1 and the average
vegetarian’s ratio, on the other hand, is 2.9 to 1. When it comes to heart disease the evidence
is against animal products. Vegans live
on average six to ten years longer than the rest of the population and in fact
seem to be healthier on every measurement we have of assessing health
outcomes. The risk of dying during
bypass surgery 4.6 – 11.9 percent, the risk of permanent brain damage from
bypass surgery 15-44 percent. Recipients
of bypass surgery for whom it prolongs life is 2 percent. The risk of death during angioplasty 0.4 –
2.8 percent and the risk of major complications developing during angioplasty
10 percent. Studies that have found that
angioplasty prolongs life or prevents heart attacks zero. Patients undergo
bypass and angioplasty operations primarily to relive angina and improve blood
flow to the heart. Yet there is a 25 to
50 percent likelihood that within six months their blood vessels will again be
blocked, and their chest pain will recur, assuming they continue to eat an
animal product-based diet (Robbins ’01: 14, 15, 21, 22, 23).
Food of high fat
and sugar content should be avoided.
Cholesterol comes from eating food of animal origin, when ingested in
the form of fat, this substance is absorbed form the intestinal tract,
converted in the liver, and added to the total amount of cholesterol already
circulating in the serum. When the
amount of cholesterol becomes high, arteries begin to show an increase in fatty
deposits. A healthy person can tolerate
6 ounces of liquor over a one hour period, but more than this amount rapidly
weakens muscle contraction and can lead to alcoholic myocarditis. The risk of developing myocardial infarction
is about twice as great for heavy coffee drinkers as it is for individuals who
drink no coffee at all. Elevated blood
pressure, stress may increase serum cholesterol thereby causing
atherosclerosis. The use of oral
contraceptives involves an increased risk of clotting disorders, increases
hypertension and thrombotic strokes and sharply increases the risk of stroke
when cigarette smoking is also practiced.
Excessive licorice (Glycyrrhiza
glabra) ingestion for example can lead to cardiac dysfunction and severe
hypertension. Vitamin E deficiency is
also implicated in heart disease, and homogenized milk may be involved in
atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular disease. “Everything I enjoy in life” runs the ancient
lament, “is either illegal, immoral or fattening” (Elvin-Lewis ’77: 181, 182). For healing to occur necrotic scarred heart tissue must be dissolved and absorbed by blood
stream and this can only happen if animal products, fats and cholesterol are
completely avoided and cardiovascular activity is minimally athletic – 10k run
or four hours of walking or yoga daily.
Two meals of rice, lentils or beans and vegetables (not rice and beans,
or beans and corn which make a complete protein, that is too large to pass
extremely clogged arteries, and should not be more than 10 to 20 percent of a
healthy person’s diet) and one or two of fruit and whole grain in large
portions to get 1,500-2,000 calories a day without going nuts. No animal products, no angina pectoris. No sugar,
no tooth infection.
Proteins, are
complex chains of amino acids, supplied in our diet chiefly by animal proteins
–meat, milk, cheese and eggs – and to a lesser degree by plants such as legumes
and nuts. Protein requirements vary,
with children, pregnant and lactating women, and men undergoing strenuous
exercise requiring larger amounts.
Beyond infancy a child requires about 10% of his caloric intake in
protein. Protein deficiency, especially
during the first year of life, has been associated with decreased brain
development and lowered IQ.
Lung cancer risk declines by 40 percent among
people who consume a lot of apples, bananas and grapes. British vegetarian men had 27 percent the
chance of getting lung cancer to the general population and women 37 percent. German vegetarian men has only 8 percent the
chance of contracting lung cancer. A
low-fat plant based diet would lower the heart attack rate about 85 percent,
and cancer rate 60 percent. The death
rate from breast cancer per 100,000 is 22.4 in the US, 6.3 in Japan and 4.6 in
China. The primary reason for the
difference is that people in the Orient eat more fruits and vegetables, less
animal products, weigh less, drink less alcohol and get more exercise than
people in the US> Breast cancer rates
for women in Italy who eat a lot of animal products is three times greater than
women in Italy who don’t. Breast cancer
rates for women who eat meat in Uruguay are 4.2 times greater. Women who are 45 pounds overweight have
double the cancer risk. Prostate cancer
is the most common cancer among American men.
The risk of prostate cancer for men who consume high amounts of dairy
products is 70 percent increased while those who consume soy milk was 70
percent reduced. Risk increases 45
percent for men with low blood levels of beta-carotene found naturally in
carrots, sweet potatoes and yams.
Tomatoes also brought about a 45 percent reduction in risk. Colon cancer
takes 55,000 lives in the US each year.
Rates of colorectal cancer in various countries are strongly correlated
with per capita consumption of red meat and animal fat, and inversely
associated with fiber consumption. Risk
of colon cancer for women who eat red meat daily was 250 percent greater than
those who eat it less than once a month.
Once a week consumption caused a 38 percent increase in risk over those
who abstained Those who eat poultry once
a week was 55 percent greater. Poultry
four times a week is 200-300 percent greater risk. People who eat beans peas, or lentils at
least twice a week were 50 percent lower risk. Diets rich in B-vitamin folic acid, found in
dark green leafy vegetables, beans and peas, were 75 percent lower. The ratio of colon cancer for white South
Africans compared to black South Africans was 17 to 1, presumably by the
absence of animal products in their diet.
Only 2 percent of Americans are however aware that eating less meat
reduces colon cancer risk (Robbins ’01:46, 47, 48, 50). No protein, no tumor growth factor.
Acetic acid,
butyric acid and propionic acid aren’t fats.
However, they’re called short-chain fatty acids because of their
chemical structure. A molecule of a
fatty acid consists of a chain of carbon atoms attached to hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. The carbon chain can be a short
as one atom – or as long as nearly thirty atoms. Short-chain fatty acids contain only a few
carbon atoms. These substancs are
soluble in water and we don’t normally think of them as fats. More familiar fatty acids, such as polyu8nsaturated
fatty acids, have longer carbon chains.
SCFAs are the single most important type of metabiotiv that contribute
to a halthy digestive tract in several ways.
They create an environment that abots probiotics and thus help maintain
a balanced microflora. Candida albicans and other potentially
harmful yeasts don’t grow well in the presence of SCFAs. They nourish the cells that line the colon,
promoting the integrity of the intestinal wall.
Some scientists belive that a healthy intestinal wall is a key to
preventing food allergies, because it keeps digested food from escaping intot
he body and stimulating an immune reaction.
They send signals that limit inflammatory responses. Denderitic cells live among the cells that
line the intestines, they, when enough SCFAs are detected, these monitoring
cells send an “all clear” signal to the immune system. This dampens inflammatory responses in the
gut and also stimulates formation of regulatory T cells that travel throughout
the body, keeping inflammation under control (Huffnagle ’07: 279, 280).
Antioxidants are
credited with a wide range of dazzling health benefits, from protectng us
against cancer to fighting wrinkles.
There are lots of different antioxidants, including certain vitamins
(beta-carotene, which is a form of vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E). But the most abundant type of antioxidants in
plants are compounds called phenols – tannins, phytostrogens, flavonoids,
flavonols, bioflavonoids, polyphenols, and monophenols. When you at plant foods rich in phenols, you
not only get the familiar benefits of antioxidants, you also support the
probiotic microbes in your digestive tract.
That’s because phenols have the astounding ability to act as selective
antibiotics, that inhibit the growth of non-probiotic bacteria, while having minimal
effect on the growth of probiotics.
Phenols are found just under the skin of fruits and vegetables where
they can ward off invaders that land on their surfaces In addition to phenols, fruits and vegetables
supply soluble fiber plus many important vitamins and minerals. The dietary phenol powerhouses are berries,
blueberries, raspberries, cranberries, blackberries and strawberries. That’s
because berries have the highest ratio of skin to pulp. Similarly, cherries, especially tart red
cherries, are unusually high in dietary phenols. Oxidative damage in our body can lead to
cancer and heart disease, and it’s also responsible for age-related changes,
such as wrinkling of the skin, cataracts, and macular degeneration (leading
cause of blindness in the elderly). The
cellular damage produed by oidatin stimulates inflammation, creating further
problems. Out tissues fight back by
producing antioxidants to control oxidation.
Plants also live in a dangerous world.
So they do exactly the same thing out bodis do, they manufacture
chemicals, including phenols and other antioxidants, to protet themselves. Phenols also have antibiotic properties, so
they protect against harmful microbes, too.
By consuming plant-based foods, their dietary phenols fight our
oxidation. Considerable research has linked
a diet with abundant plant antioxidants to reduced riak of cancer,
cardiovascular disease and stroke, Alzheimer’s and inflammatory diseases, such
as inflammatory bowel disease, asthma and autoimmunity. The best sources for
dietary phenols are beens, peas, lentils, hergs and spices, fruits (consumed
with the skin), berries, juics of dark berries (unfiltered and unsweetened),
tea, red wine, red wine vinegar, dark beer (ales and stout, dark chocolate,
cocoa powder and coffee (limit 3 cups per day) (Huffnagle ’07: 274, 275, 287,
276, 277).
Vitamins and Minerals, What they
do, Food Source
|
Vitamin |
What the vitamin does |
Significant food
sources |
|
B1 (thiamin) |
Supports energy
metabolism and nerve function |
spinach, green peas, tomato
juice, watermelon, sunflower seeds, lean ham, lean pork chops, soy milk |
|
B2 (riboflavin) |
Supports energy metabolism, normal vision and skin health |
spinach, broccoli, mushrooms, eggs, milk, liver, oysters, clams |
|
B3 (niacin) |
Supports energy metabolism, skin health, nervous system and
digestive system |
spinach, potatoes, tomato juice, lean ground beef, chicken
breast, tuna (canned in water), liver, shrimp |
|
Biotin |
Energy metabolism, fat synthesis, amino acid metabolism,
glycogen synthesis |
widespread in foods |
|
Pantothenic Acid |
Supports energy metabolism |
widespread in foods |
|
B6 (pyridoxine) |
Amino acid and fatty acid metabolism, red blood cell production |
bananas, watermelon, tomato juice, broccoli, spinach, acorn
squash, potatoes, white rice, chicken breast |
|
Folate |
Supports DNA synthesis and new cell formation |
tomato juice, green beans, broccoli, spinach, asparagus, okra,
black-eyed peas, lentils, navy, pinto and garbanzo beans |
|
B12 |
Used in new cell synthesis, helps break down fatty acids and
amino acids, supports nerve cell maintenance |
meats, poultry, fish, shellfish, milk, eggs |
|
C (ascorbic acid) |
Collagen synthesis, amino acid metabolism, helps iron
absorption, immunity, antioxidant |
spinach, broccoli, red bell peppers, snow peas, tomato juice,
kiwi, mango, orange, grapefruit juice, strawberries |
|
A (retinol) |
Supports vision, skin, bone and tooth growth, immunity and
reproduction |
mango, broccoli, butternut squash, carrots, tomato juice, sweet
potatoes, pumpkin, beef liver |
|
D |
Promotes bone mineralization |
self-synthesis via sunlight, fortified milk, egg yolk, liver,
fatty fish |
|
E |
Antioxidant, regulation of oxidation reactions, supports cell
membrane stabilization |
polyunsaturated plant oils (soybean, corn and canola oils),
wheat germ, sunflower seeds, tofu, avocado, sweet potatoes, shrimp, cod |
|
K |
Synthesis of blood-clotting proteins, regulates blood calcium |
Brussels sprouts, leafy green vegetables, spinach, broccoli,
cabbage, liver |
|
Mineral |
What the mineral does |
Significant food sources |
|
Sodium |
Maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, supports muscle
contraction and nerve impulse transmissions |
salt, soy sauce, bread, milk, meats |
|
Chloride |
Maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, aids in digestion |
salt, soy sauce, milk, eggs, meats |
|
Potassium |
Maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, cell integrity, muscle
contractions and nerve impulse transmission |
potatoes, acorn squash, artichoke, spinach, broccoli, carrots, green
beans, tomato juice, avocado, grapefruit juice, watermelon, banana,
strawberries, cod, milk |
|
Calcium |
Formation of bones and teeth, supports blood clotting |
milk, yogurt, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheese, tofu, sardines,
green beans, spinach, broccoli |
|
Phosphorus |
Formation of cells, bones and teeth, maintains acid-base balance |
all animal foods (meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk) |
|
Magnesium |
Supports bone mineralization, protein building, muscular
contraction, nerve impulse transmission, immunity |
spinach, broccoli, artichokes, green beans, tomato juice, navy
beans, pinto beans, black-eyed peas, sunflower seeds, tofu, cashews,
halibut |
|
Iron |
Part of the protein hemoglobin (carries oxygen throughout body's
cells) |
artichoke, parsley, spinach, broccoli, green beans, tomato
juice, tofu, clams, shrimp, beef liver |
|
Zinc |
A part of many enzymes, involved in production of genetic
material and proteins, transports vitamin A, taste perception, wound healing,
sperm production and the normal development of the fetus |
spinach, broccoli, green peas, green beans, tomato
juice,lentils, oysters, shrimp, crab, turkey (dark meat), lean ham, lean
ground beef, lean sirloin steak, plain yogurt, Swiss cheese, tofu, ricotta
cheese |
|
Selenium |
Antioxidant. Works with vitamin E to protect body from
oxidation |
seafood, meats and grains |
|
Iodine |
Component of thyroid hormones that help regulate growth,
development and metabolic rate |
salt, seafood, bread, milk, cheese |
|
Copper |
Necessary for the absorption and utilization of iron, supports
formation of hemoglobin and several enzymes |
meats, water |
|
Manganese |
Facilitates many cell processes |
widespread in foods |
|
Fluoride |
Involved in the formation of bones and teeth, helps to make
teeth resistant to decay |
fluoridated drinking water, tea, seafood |
|
Chromium |
Associated with insulin and is required for the release of
energy from glucose |
vegetable oils, liver, brewer's yeast, whole grains, cheese,
nuts |
|
Molybdenum |
Facilitates many cell processes |
legumes, organ meats |
Source:
24HAUSC(9)(X)§399
To lose weight is to
take in fewer calories than you burn and to aim for a weight loss of about 1 or
2 pounds a week. Exercise at least 60 minutes daily. This is the most effective
way to lose weight. Diet is extremely important. Nutrition is all about the study of food and
how our bodies use food as fuel for growth and daily activities. The
macro-nutrients, or "big" nutrients include proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats. The micro-nutrients, or "little" nutrients are the vitamins
and minerals needed to be healthy.
Calories are the basic unit of food energy. A
calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1ºC. The energy value of food and human energy
requirements are expressed as caloric equivalents. Obesity is certainly a factor in shortening
the life span and in the incidence of diabetes, cholelithiasis, hypertension,
gallbladder disease, and vascular disorders including atherosclerosis. Orthopedic programs too, occur with
appreciably higher frequency in the obese.
That obesity is due to an excess of caloric intake over metabolic need
is accepted by nearly everyone. Fatty acids are used by the body as a source of
energy and are provided for in our diet by animal fat and vegetable oils that
when metabolized supply 9 cal/g.
Carbohydrates are complex compounds made up of sugars that when
metabolized yield 4 cal/g. A healthy diet consists
exclusively of fruit, vegetables and whole grains. Meat, bread and dairy products are luxury
foods that are excessively fattening and should be avoided most of the time,
although the fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals are important in
moderation. Sweets, junk food, fast
food, fried food, processed foods such as hydrogenated fats and oils
(trans-fats), white flour, white rice and bread, and high fructose corn syrup,
should be eliminated. Unlike protein, carbohydrates and fats,
vitamins do not yield usable energy when broken down. They assist the
enzymes that release energy from carbohydrates, proteins and fats, but they do
not provide energy themselves. Vitamins and minerals are widely available
from plant food sources. They are
important for maintain health and treating many diseases. One should ideally get all the vitamins and
minerals needed from natural food sources to consume what could be construed as
a balanced diet. There are also daily
multi-vitamins and special vitamins for people recovering from a deficiency or
with special needs, such as vegans who have no natural sources of vitamin B12
and Phosphorus, but there is no substitute for a healthy, balanced diet (24USC(9)(X)§399).
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