Hospitals & Asylums
Major Earth Treaties of 1992 HA-26-4-07 By Tony Sanders 1. The purpose of this essay is to inform the public of the three major environmental treaties and underlying scientific data to facilitate international cooperation. 70.8%, 361.132 million sq km of the world's 510.072 million sq km surface is water, 29.2%, 148.94 million sq km is land. As the result of the symbiosis between biotic life and the evaporation of water the Earth has developed an atmosphere. Air
contains roughly 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases, in addition to about 3% water vapor. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation and reducing temperature extremes between day and night. Three quarters of the atmosphere's mass is within 11 km of the planetary surface. The Karman line, at 100 km (62 miles), is frequently used as the boundary between atmosphere and outer space. Earth is an estimated 4.5 billion years old. Scientists believe the
Earth began about 4.6 billion years ago as a cosmic lumping of dust in larger and larger particles until 150 million years had passed. At about 4.4 billion years, the young Earth had a mass similar to the mass it has today. Geochemical analysis of rocks suggests that the continents probably began forming about 4.3 billion years ago as the Earth continued to cool. The cooling also resulted in the release of gases from the lithosphere, much of which formed the Earth's early atmosphere. At around 4 billion years ago cooling caused precipitation
of water and the development of the oceans leading to the earliest chemosynthetic bacterial life around 3.8 billion years ago that began to modify the atmosphere with the accumulation of oxygen. From 3.3 billion years till the present the development, evolution and growth of life increased the oxygen content in the atmosphere from less than 1% to 21%. Most of the build up of oxygen in the atmosphere occurred
between 2.1 and 1.5 billion years ago as a direct result of photosynthesis from ocean based plants like algae. At about 450 million years ago, there was enough oxygen in the atmosphere to allow for the development of a stratospheric ozone layer that was thick enough to keep terrestrial life protected from ultraviolet radiation. As a result, terrestrial life began its development and expansion at this time. Around
500 million years ago oxygen levels topped off.
2. The earliest humans are estimated to have
first began to walk upright around 4 million years ago. As the result of the bipedal nature of the
beast man could not outrun or outclimb their predators so relied upon tribal cooperation
to protect themselves. For two million
years pre human tribes were primarily herb eaters. For the majority of the next two million years they were hunter
gatherers. The intellect, which separates the human
from all other animals, developed slowly over the entire four million years or
more of the human development. Around
2.4 to 1.5 million years ago homo habilis appear to have developed tools that
were found with their fossil remains.
The homo erectus lived from 1.8 to 300,000 years ago and are attributed
with developing a significantly larger brain capacity, tools, weapons, and
cooking with fire. Archaic homo sapiens
first arrived 500,000 to 200,000 years ago and are notable for indications that
speech had evolved. Homo sapiens
neanderthalis co-existed with early homo sapiens in Europe and the Middle East
between 150,000 and 35,000 years ago and had a larger cranial capacity than we
do today. Modern homo sapiens sapiens
first appeared around 120,000 years ago and they invented agriculture and the
basics of civilization beginning around 10,000 years ago. It was
not until the 1700s, 300 years ago, that humans had begun to modify the
concenstration of some gases in atmosphere and industrialization came to have a
serious negative impact upon the atmosphere. For sustainable development humans must use sensible agricultural and
hunting practices. The Bible contains numerous examples of the care with which
we are expected to treat the environment. In (Gen. 1:28) humans
are charged with replenishing the earth and subduing it. (Lev. 25:12) revels
in the jubilee of working the field that shall be holy unto you and ye shall
eat the increase thereof out of the field.
In (Deut.
22:6) can be found the principle of protecting the habitat of wildlife (Deut. 25:4) directs
compassion for domestic animals. (Job 38) and (Psalm 104) express
the wonder of creation and speak of the conservation of nature. (Matt. 6:26) explains
how the wild animals provide for themselves.
It is clear that human have always been charged with environmental
stewardship.
3. Environmental law is a relatively new
invention. Industrialization dramatically
increased the devastation that mankind wreaked on the environment it was
however not until the turn of the 20th century that nations first
became interested in protecting the purity of the food and drugs they consume
themselves. It was not until the first
Earth Day 22 April 1970 that environmental law was discernibly
established. Previously the environmental
conservation was the domain of scientists in general, park wardens and
concerned citizens. After nationalizing
natural resources in the 1960s, there was an international revolution in
environmental law and the nation(s) came to regulate clean air, clean water and
biological diversity under the law and through the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) that
is charged with protecting human health and environment. In 1972 the United Nations established their
Environmental Programme (UNEP)
to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the
environment. It was however not until 1992 that the three
major environmental treaties were ratified by the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, “Earth Summit”, from 3 to 14
June 1992 guided by Agenda
21. The
Rio Declaration summarizes the consensus principles of sustainable
development, recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth,
our home, human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
development. Humans are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony
with nature. States have the sovereign
right to exploit the natural resources within their borders but have the
responsibility not to cause damage to the environment or to areas beyond their
national jurisdiction. Environmental
protection should constitute an integral part of the development process in
which the eradication of poverty, particularly in developing nations is of
paramount importance. States shall
cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore
the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life
for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of
production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies. Environmental issues are best handled with
participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. States shall enact effective environmental
legislation. Indigenous people and
their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental
management and development because of their knowledge and traditional
practices. Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States and people shall resolve all their
environmental disputes peacefully and cooperate in good faith. The three major environmental treaties are
the Framework Convention
on Climate Change of 9 May 1992, the Convention
on Biological Diversity of 5 June 1992, and the Statement
on Forest Principles of
14 August 1992.
4. The Framework Convention on Climate Change acknowledges that increases in the atmosphere of greenhouse gases will change the climate and that this a common concern for the ecosystem and mankind. The treaty notes that developed countries contribute the largest per capita share of greenhouse gases and that State have a sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their environmental and development policies. States should enact effective environmental legislation. Developed countries must take immediate action in a flexible manner on the basis of clear priorities. Low-lying and other small island countries, countries with low-lying coastal, arid and semi-arid areas or areas liable to floods, drought and desertification, and developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Developing countries may have difficulty complying but are not the largest polluters of the air. Responses to climate change should be coordinated with social and economic development. All countries, especially developing countries, need access to resources required to achieve sustainable social and economic development that should utilize modern clean technology, determined to protect the climate for present and future generations. The ultimate objective of this Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system in a time frame that would allow the ecosystem to adapt naturally to climate change in order to protect the food supply and economic development in a sustainable fashion. Developed nations shall assist developing nations to comply with this treaty. The Ozone Secretariat was established to enforce the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985 and for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer of 1987. These treaties are landmark international agreements designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by stipulating that the production and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl chloroform). Climate change proves to be a more difficult issue to redress because of the dependency modern industrialized societies have upon fossil fuels. The United States, the world’s largest air polluter, unanimously ratified the 1992 UNFCCC with the support of Bush Sr., Bush Jr. has however refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC of 11 December 1997 that requires the United States to reduce their carbon emissions to 93% of current levels. The Environmental Protection Agency has made Clean Air and Climate Change Goal #1 in their Strategic Plan 2006-2011 that exceeds international standards however their noncompliance with State and international actors has come under the criticism of the US Supreme Court to enforce car emission tests in Massachusetts v. EPA No. 05-1220 of 2 April 2007.
5. Scientific evidence, much suppressed
by the US President, does indicate that climate change and global warming are real
problems. The average temperature of
the earth's surface has risen by 0.6 degrees C since the late 1800s. It is
expected to increase by another 1.4 to 5.8 degrees C by the year 2100 -- a
rapid and profound change. Even if the minimum predicted increase takes place,
it will be larger than any century-long trend in the last 10,000 years. The principal reason for the mounting
thermometer is a century and a half of industrialization: the burning of
ever-greater quantities of oil, gasoline, and coal, the cutting of forests,
and certain farming methods. These
activities have increased the amount of "greenhouse gases" in the
atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Such gases
occur naturally and are critical for life on earth; they keep some of the sun's
warmth from reflecting back into space, and without them the world would be a
cold and barren place. Global warming is an international problem,
involving weather patterns that transcend international boundaries. The 1990s appear to have been the warmest decade
of the last Millennium, and 1998 the warmest year. The global
mean surface temperature in 2006 is currently estimated to be + 0.42°C above
the 1961-1990 annual average (14°C/57.2°F), making 2006 the sixth warmest year
on record. Averaged
separately for both hemispheres, 2006 surface temperatures for the northern
hemisphere (0.58°C above 30-year mean of 14.6°C/58.28°F) are likely to be the
fourth warmest and for the southern hemisphere (0.26°C above 30-year mean of
13.4°C/56.12°F), the seventh warmest in the instrumental record from 1861 to
the present. Since the start of the
20th century, the global average surface temperature has risen approximately
0.7°C. But this rise has not been continuous. Since 1976, the global average
temperature has risen sharply, at 0.18°C per decade. In the northern and
southern hemispheres, the period 1997-2006 averaged 0.53°C and 0.27°C above the
1961-1990 mean, respectively. On
25 September, the maximum area of the 2006 ozone hole over the Antarctic was
recorded at 29.5 million km˛, slightly larger than the previous record area of
29.4 million km˛ reached in September 2000. The size and persistence of the
2006 ozone hole area with its ozone mass deficit of 40.8 megatonnes (also a
record) can be explained by the continuing presence of near-peak levels of
ozone-depleting substances in combination with a particularly cold
stratospheric winter. Low temperatures in the first part of January prompted a
20 per cent loss in the ozone layer over the Arctic in 2006. The year 2006
continues the pattern of sharply decreasing Arctic sea ice. The average sea-ice
extent for the entire month of September was 5.9 million km˛, the second lowest
on record missing the 2005 record by 340 000 km˛. Including 2006, the September
rate of sea ice decline is now approximately -8.59% per decade, or 60 421 km˛
per year. The current warming trend is expected to cause extinctions. Numerous
plant and animal species, already weakened by pollution and loss of habitat,
are not expected to survive the next 100 years. Human beings, while not
threatened in this way, are likely to face mounting difficulties. Recent severe
storms, floods and droughts, for example, appear to show that computer models
predicting more frequent "extreme weather events" are on target. The sea level rose on average by 10 to
20 cm during the 20th century, and an additional increase of 9 to 88 cm is
expected by the year 2100. (Higher temperatures cause ocean volume to expand,
and melting glaciers and ice caps add more water.) If the higher end of that
scale is reached, the sea could overflow the heavily populated coastlines of
such countries as Bangladesh, cause the disappearance of some nations entirely
(such as the island state of the Maldives), foul freshwater supplies for
billions of people, and spur mass migrations.
Agricultural yields are expected to drop in most tropical and sub-tropical
regions -- and in temperate regions, too, if the temperature increase is more
than a few degrees C. Drying of continental interiors, such as central Asia,
the African Sahel, and the Great Plains of the United States, is also forecast.
These changes could cause, at a minimum, disruptions in land use and food
supply and the range of diseases.
Reducing our reliance on fossil fuels will not only lead us to energy
independence, it will help us combat climate change.
6. The Convention on Biological Diversity seeks to raise consciousness of the intrinsic value of biological diversity as a common concern of humankind. Biological resources feed and clothe us and provide housing, medicines and spiritual nourishment. The natural ecosystems
of forests, savannahs, pastures and rangelands, deserts, tundras, rivers, lakes and seas contain most of the Earth's biodiversity. Farmers' fields and gardens are also of great importance as repositories, while gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos and other germ-plasm repositories make a small but significant contribution. The current decline in biodiversity is largely the result of human activity and represents a serious threat to human development. Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years, the loss of the world's biological diversity, mainly from habitat destruction, over-harvesting, pollution and the inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals, has continued. Biological resources constitute a capital asset with great potential for yielding sustainable benefits. Urgent and decisive action is needed to conserve and maintain genes, species and ecosystems, with a view to the sustainable management and use of biological resources. States are
responsible for conserving their biological diversity and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner. It is vital to prevent the causes of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity at its source. The fundamental requirement for the conservation of biological diversity is the in-situ conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings. Ex-situ measures, preferably in the country of origin, also have an important role to play. The traditional dependence of many indigenous and local communities on biological resources makes it desirable to share equitably benefits arising from the use of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components by intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations. Substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity and that there is the expectation of a broad range of environmental, economic and social benefits from those investments. Economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of developing countries. Conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical importance for meeting the food, health and other needs of the growing world population, for which purpose access to and sharing of both genetic resources and technologies are essential. Ultimately, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity will strengthen friendly relations among States and contribute to peace for humankind. The objectives of this Convention are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. A Protocol on Bio-safety was done on 29 January 2000 with the objective of this Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on trans-boundary movements. 7. Human beings are currently causing the greatest mass extinction of species since the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, the sixth major extinction event in the history of the earth. If present trends continue one half of all species of life on earth will be extinct in less than 100 years, as a result of habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. At least one in eight known plant species
is threatened with extinction. Although scientists are divided over the specific numbers, many believe that the rate of loss is greater now than at any time in history. Habitats ranging from coral reefs to tropical rainforests face mounting threats. Apart from the disappearance
of the dinosaurs, the other "Big Five" extinctions were about 205, 250, 375 and 440 million years ago. Scientists suspect that asteroid strikes, volcanic eruptions or sudden climate shifts may explain the five. The first, 450 million years ago, occurred shortly after the
evolution of the first land-based plants and 100 million years after the Cambrian Explosion of animal life beneath the seas. The second
extinction spasm came 350 million years ago, causing the formation of coal forests. Then the Earth experienced two mass extinctions during the Triassic period, between 250 and 200 million years ago. The fifth mass extinction, probably caused by a giant meteor collision, occurred 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and ended the reptilian dominance of the Earth. The new human caused, 6th extinction results in the extinction of between 17,000 to 100,000 species from our planet, every year, from a total of 10 to 100 million species. Fifty per cent of the Earth's species will have vanished inside the next 100 years. Mankind is using almost half the energy available to sustain life on the planet, and this figure will only grow as our population leaps from 5.7 billion to ten billion inside the next half-century. There is no question that Homo sapiens is the single most dominant species on Earth today. We arrived late on the evolutionary scene and at a time when the diversity of life on the planet was near its all-time high. Homo sapiens are not the first living creature to have a dramatic impact on Earth's biota, of course. The advent of photosynthetic microorganisms some three billion years ago began to transform the atmosphere from one of low oxygen content to one of relatively high levels, reaching close to modern levels within the last billion years. With the change, very different life forms were possible, including multi-cellular organisms, and previously abundant forms that thrived in a low oxygen environment were consigned to marginal habitats of the Earth. But that change was wrought not by a single, sentient species consciously pursuing its own material goals, but by countless, non-sentient species, collectively and unconsciously operating new metabolic pathways. Humans endanger the existence of species in three principal ways. The first is through direct exploitation, such as hunting. From butterflies, to songbirds, to elephants, the human appetite for collecting or eating parts of wild creatures puts many species at risk of extinction. Second is the biological havoc that is occasionally wreaked following the introduction of alien species to new ecosystems, whether deliberately or accidentally. The third, and by far the most important, mode of human-driven extinction is the destruction and fragmentation of habitat, especially the inexorable cutting of tropical rainforests. The forests, which cover just 7 percent of the world's land surface, are a cauldron of evolutionary innovation and are home to half of the world's species. The continued growth of human populations in all parts of the world daily encroaches on wild habitats, whether through the expansion of agricultural land, the building of towns and cities, or the transport infrastructure that joins them. As the habitats shrink, so too does the Earth's capacity to sustain its biological heritage.
8. The Statement
on Forest Principles of 14 June 1992 pledges parties to more sustainable
use of forest resources. All countries should take part in "the greening
of the world" through forest planting and conservation. Countries have the right to use forests for
their social and economic development needs. Such use should be based on
national policies consistent with sustainable development. The sustainable use of forests will require
sustainable patterns of production and consumption at a global level. Forests should be managed to meet the
social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and
future generations. The profits from biotechnology products and genetic
materials taken from forests should be shared, on mutually agreed terms, with
countries where the forests are located. Planted forests are environmentally
sound sources of renewable energy and industrial raw materials. The use of wood
for fuel is particularly important in developing countries. Such needs should
be met through sustainable use of forests and replanting. The plantations will
provide employment and reduce the pressure to cut old-growth forests. National
plans should protect unique examples of forests, including old forests and
forests with cultural, spiritual, historical, religious and other values.
International financial support, including some from the private sector, should
be provided to developing nations to help protect their forests. Countries need sustainable forestry plans
based on environmentally sound guidelines. Forestry plans should count both the
economic and non-economic values of forests, and the environmental costs and benefits
of harvesting or protecting forests. Policies that encourage forest degradation
should be avoided. The planning and implementation of national forest policies
should involve a wide variety of people, including women, forest dwellers,
indigenous people, industries, workers and non-government organizations. Forest
policies should support the identity, culture and rights of indigenous people
and forest dwellers. Their knowledge of conservation and sustainable forest use
should be respected and used in developing forestry programs. They should be
offered forms of economic activity and land tenure that encourage sustainable
forest use and provide them with an adequate livelihood and level of
well-being. Trade in forest products should be based on non-discriminatory,
rules, agreed on by nations. Unilateral measures should not be used to restrict
or ban international trade in timber and other forest products. Trade measures
should encourage local processing and higher prices for processed products.
Tariffs and other barriers to markets for such goods should be reduced or
removed. There should be controls on pollutants, such as acidic fallout, that
harm forests. The primary goal is to reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide
through sustainable forest management, including protection and reforestation,
and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation.
9.
Forests world wide have
been and are being threatened by uncontrolled degradation and conversion to other
types of land uses, influenced by increasing human needs; agricultural
expansion; and environmentally harmful mismanagement, including, for example,
lack of adequate forest-fire control and anti-poaching measures, unsustainable
commercial logging, overgrazing and unregulated browsing, harmful effects of
airborne pollutants, economic incentives and other measures taken by other
sectors of the economy. The impacts of loss and degradation of forests are in
the form of soil erosion; loss of biological diversity, damage to wildlife
habitats and degradation of watershed areas, deterioration of the quality of
life and reduction of the options for development. Deforestation has
resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their
pre-agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover
21% of the earth's land surface. According to the World Resources Institute, more than 80 percent
of the Earth’s natural forests already have been destroyed. Up to 90 percent of
West Africa’s coastal rain forests have disappeared since 1900. Brazil and
Indonesia, which contain the world’s two largest surviving regions of rain
forest, are being stripped at an alarming rate by logging, fires, and land
clearing for agriculture and cattle-grazing. Some eighty thousand square miles of trees are felled a
year, or more than an acre a second. At this rate of destruction, tropical forests
will be reduced to 10 percent of their original cover soon after the turn of
the century and to a tiny remnant by 2050. The annual net loss of
forests was 7.3 million hectares - an area the size of Panama or Ireland - from
2000-2005, slightly less than 8.9 million hectares a year from 1990-2000. A
study by the U.S. National Biological Service reported in February 1995 that
during the 20th half the country's natural ecosystems had been
degraded to the point of endangerment.
Net deforestation rates
have fallen since the 1990-2000 period, but some 13 million hectares of the
world’s forests are still lost each year, including 6 million hectares of
primary forests. Primary forests -- forests with no visible signs of past or
present human activities -- are considered the most biologically diverse
ecosystems on the planet. Industrial logging, clearing and forest conversion
for agriculture, fuel wood collection by rural poor, and forest fires -- often
purposely set by people -- are considered the leading causes of
deforestation. The United States has
the seventh largest annual loss of primary forests in the world. In the
2000-2005 period, the United States lost an average of 831 square miles
(215,200 hectares, 2,152 square kilometers or 531,771 acres) of such lands
which are sometimes termed "old-growth forests."
10. Agenda 21 addresses the comprehensive environmental quality problems of the new century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment that is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. Financial resources will need to be committed to the environmental cause of sustainable development. Sustainable development requires a commitment to sound economic policies and trade in harmony with the environment. A specific anti-poverty strategy is therefore one of the basic conditions for ensuring sustainable development. Poverty and environmental degradation are closely interrelated, the wealthy invest in beautification programs while the poor are forced to live in their refuse. The growth of world population and production combined with unsustainable consumption patterns places increasingly severe stress on the life-supporting capacities of our planet. Environmental concerns need to be integrated into the decision-making process. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavor involving various sectors of economic activity often dependent upon fossil fuels. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which interact and may compete with one another as an ecosystem; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manage all uses in an integrated manner that takes the environment, economic, demographic and social factors into consideration. Policies must support the multiple ecological, economic, social and cultural roles of trees, forests and forest lands that need conservation of existing forests and replanting. Desertification in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas results from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities, affects about one sixth of the world's population, 70 per cent of all dry lands, amounting to 3.6 billion hectares, one quarter of the total land area of the world. Mountains are an important source of water, energy and biological diversity and are vulnerable to climate change. Agriculture occupies one third of the land surface of the Earth, and is the central activity for much of the world's population. Sustainable agriculture and rural development needs to produce enough food for the increasing human population particularly in developing nations. Estimates put pre-harvest and post-harvest losses caused by pests between 25 and 50 per cent. Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years, the loss of the world's biological diversity, mainly from habitat destruction, over-harvesting, pollution and the inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals, has continued. The marine environment - including the oceans and all seas and adjacent coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of the global life-support system and a positive asset that presents opportunities for sustainable development. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine pollution, while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities contribute 10 per cent each. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and shellfish per year. Fresh water demands are increasing rapidly, with 70-80 per cent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry and a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption. Over 2.0 billion people are without access to basic sanitation, as many as 5.2 million people, including 4 million children under five years of age, die each year from waste-related diseases, it is hoped to have full urban sanitation by 2025. The fundamental prerequisite for the achievement of sustainable development is broad public participation in decision-making informed of environmental issues and data.
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